{"id":1127,"date":"2020-07-10T18:09:10","date_gmt":"2020-07-11T01:09:10","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/?page_id=1127"},"modified":"2022-01-14T10:16:38","modified_gmt":"2022-01-14T18:16:38","slug":"immunology-vaccines-viral-loads-symptom-severity-and-immunity","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/immunology-vaccines-viral-loads-symptom-severity-and-immunity\/","title":{"rendered":"Immunology: Vaccines, Viral Loads, Symptom Severity, And Immunity"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>&#8216;Immunology is obviously not perspicuous enough to eliminate these understandings, unless one maintains that arrogance blinds &#8220;scientific experts&#8221; from seeing obvious truths, which even a \u201cplowboy\u201d ought to be able to grasp.&#8217; &#8211; adapted from Martin Luther, 1483-1546<br><br><br>A&nbsp;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vaccine#Attenuated\" target=\"_blank\">vaccine<\/a>&nbsp;is a biological preparation that provides active&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acquired_immunity\">acquired immunity<\/a>&nbsp;to a particular&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infectious_disease\">infectious disease<\/a>.<br>The various types of vaccines include:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><li>Inactivated<\/li><li>Attenuated<\/li><li>Toxoid<\/li><li>Subunit<\/li><li>Conjugate<\/li><li>Heterotypic<\/li><li>Synthesized Protein Epitope (mRNA, DNA, etc.)<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>It has been known for centuries that exposure to extremely small viral loads and\/or <strong>attenuated<\/strong> or <strong>inactivated<\/strong> viruses can elicit an immune response without resulting in severe illness and create future immunity against serious infections. The Chinese practiced the oldest documented use of <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Variolation#Origins\" target=\"_blank\">variolation<\/a>, dating back to the fifteenth century. They implemented a method of &#8220;nasal\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Insufflation_(medicine)\">insufflation<\/a>&#8221; administered by blowing powdered smallpox material, usually scabs, up the nostrils. Other approaches included <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/medicalxpress.com\/news\/2015-05-history-vaccinations-smallpox-eradicated.html\" target=\"_blank\">rubbing powdered smallpox scabs or fluid from pustules into superficial scratches<\/a> made in the skin. Modern vaccines seek to minimize adverse effects while creating lasting <a href=\"#Tutorial-Reading\">immunity<\/a>.<br><br><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.creative-biolabs.com\/vaccine\/vaccines-for-virus-from-coronaviridae-family.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Vaccines for SARS-CoV-1 have been created<\/a> and it is very likely that a vaccine for SARS-CoV-2 will become available very soon based on promising results from Phase 1 and Phase 2 studies. Update 12\/2020: Phase 3 trials have completed and vaccine is available.<br><br>From vaccine development, we can learn that it is possible to elicit immune response from inactivated viruses as well as extremely small but viable viral loads. These centuries old understandings demonstrate that <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cebm.net\/covid-19\/sars-cov-2-viral-load-and-the-severity-of-covid-19\/\" target=\"_blank\">infection severity can be dependent upon viral load amount during exposure<\/a> and that <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/medicalxpress.com\/news\/2015-05-history-vaccinations-smallpox-eradicated.html\" target=\"_blank\">sufficiently small viral loads can create immunity with mild<\/a> or possibly no perceived symptoms. An NIH study demonstrated that low viral load exposures caused people to develop increased immunity levels without becoming significantly sick \u2013 they \u201c<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4342672\/\" target=\"_blank\">seroconverted while having minimal clinical illness and no shedding<\/a>\u201c and in that study, there were 3 <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Order_of_magnitude\" target=\"_blank\">orders of magnitude<\/a> range of viral load quantities that resulted in <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/asymptomatic-pre-symptomatic-and-definitions\/\" target=\"_blank\">minor symptoms<\/a>, while the 4th and 5th magnitude orders became significantly more severe. This means there was a 1000 fold range where minor illness was found, yet some level of immune response occurred.<br><br>In an anecdotal case which is not well documented but helpful for illustrating repeat exposure concepts, a nurse in New York during the COVID outbreak was serology tested for antibodies. The nurse was found to have a 1.2 signal-to-cutoff <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.creative-diagnostics.com\/Chemiluminescence-Immunoassay-guide.htm\" target=\"_blank\">CLIA<\/a> titre which is below the <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/media\/137383\/download\" target=\"_blank\">1.4 S\/C threshold for positive indication<\/a>. He was tested again approximately 1 month later where the 2.4 S\/C titre was much larger and clearly positive, The nurse claimed to be unaware of any symptoms throughout the period or recent past. One possible explanation is that the nurse had repeated low viral load exposures that circumvented PPE and that these repeated low viral load exposures resulted in an immune response such that antibody serology increased and ultimately was found at positive IgG levels and likely indicating immunity. that <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/vaccines\/hcp\/acip-recs\/general-recs\/timing.html\" target=\"_blank\">repeat exposure tends<\/a> tends to result in<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK27158\/\" target=\"_blank\"> both stronger and longer immunity<\/a>.<br><br>In a study of 12541 health-care workers, 1265 (10%) tested positive for antibodies. Of those 1265 antibody positive individuals, 401 (32%) of them seroconverted without having recalled COVID-19 symptoms. They sercoconverted without memorable illness. It is likely this occurred as a result of low viral load exposure. <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/doi\/full\/10.1056\/NEJMoa2034545\" target=\"_blank\">&#8220;Of 1265 seropositive health care workers, 864 (68%) recalled having had symptoms consistent with those of coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19), including symptoms that preceded the widespread availability of PCR testing for SARS-CoV-2&#8221;<\/a><br><br>Some vaccines <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hepatitis_A_vaccine\" target=\"_blank\">require a calendar schedule of 2 or more immunizations to create long-lasting immunity<\/a>. While an initial dose can create short-term immunity, longer lasting immunity requires multiple exposures to the vaccine. From this, it can be deduced that exposure to viable viruses may in some cases have similar responses. Long-lasting immunity may not occur on first exposure with some viruses. While it seems counter-intuitive, it may be beneficial for someone who has recovered from an infection to remain in an environment where infections are continually occurring for some time period so that, even weeks or months after recovering, the individual may re-encounter the virus and re-engage an immune response. In these cases, the person, <a href=\"#Tutorial-Reading\">having some remaining antibodies<\/a> (and perhaps more important, some B memory \/ plasma cells) still present in their blood will rapidly defeat the virus and likely be <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/asymptomatic-pre-symptomatic-and-definitions\/\" target=\"_blank\">asymptomatic having no perceived illness<\/a>, yet the immune system has responded and also rebuilds and replicates additional antibodies and related Tmem, CD4, CD8, and broadly, other leukocytes. Additional exposures to a pathogen after having recovered from an initial infection most often strengthens and lengthens the persons immunity to that pathogen. Avoiding multiple exposures to a virus through isolation measures has potential to have a detrimental effect on long-lasting immunity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"Cross-Reactivity\"><a href=\"#Cross-Reactivity\" data-type=\"internal\" data-id=\"#Cross-Reactivity\">Cross Reactivity<\/a><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>In some cases, having immunity to one virus can result in a reaction to a different virus. This is known as <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cross-reactivity#cite_note-2\" target=\"_blank\">cross-reactivity<\/a>, cross-immunity, or cross-protective immunity. In rare cases, cross reactivity can result in <a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.sciencemag.org\/pipeline\/archives\/2020\/12\/18\/antibody-dependent-enhancement\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">complications<\/a>. In the case where <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" type=\"URL\" id=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK2396\/\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK2396\/\" target=\"_blank\">cross-reactivity<\/a> results in cross-immunity, it may result in an asymptomatic infection such that there is no perceived illness. Since the cross-reactive immunity from an older virus largely defeats the new virus, the individual would likely be <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/asymptomatic-pre-symptomatic-and-definitions\/\" target=\"_blank\">asymptomatic<\/a>, perceive no illness, and would likely shed little or no virus that could infect others. The possibility of developing a direct immune response and direct immunity to the new virus also exists as some fraction of the new viral load may result in <a href=\"#Tutorial-Reading\">B and T cell \/ plasma development that is specific to the new virus<\/a> as noted above. Regarding COVID and cross-reactivity, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" type=\"URL\" id=\"https:\/\/www.nih.gov\/news-events\/nih-research-matters\/immune-cells-common-cold-may-recognize-sars-cov-2\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nih.gov\/news-events\/nih-research-matters\/immune-cells-common-cold-may-recognize-sars-cov-2\" target=\"_blank\">A study of blood samples taken before the COVID-19 pandemic showed that some people already had certain immune cells that recognize SARS-CoV-2<\/a>. These immune cells also reacted with coronaviruses that cause common colds.&#8221;. &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" type=\"URL\" id=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/d41586-020-02400-7\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/d41586-020-02400-7\" target=\"_blank\">T-cell studies are also converging on the possibility of cross-reactivity, in which T cells that recognize other coronaviruses also recognize SARS-CoV-2<\/a>.&#8221; Another article stated <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" type=\"URL\" id=\"https:\/\/www.bmj.com\/content\/370\/bmj.m3563\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bmj.com\/content\/370\/bmj.m3563\" target=\"_blank\">&#8220;At least six studies have reported T cell reactivity against SARS-CoV-2 in 20% to 50% of people with no known exposure to the virus&#8221;<\/a>. A recent study suggests that cross-reactivity in those who serconverted from <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" type=\"URL\" id=\"https:\/\/advances.sciencemag.org\/content\/early\/2020\/10\/08\/sciadv.abc9999\" href=\"https:\/\/advances.sciencemag.org\/content\/early\/2020\/10\/08\/sciadv.abc9999\" target=\"_blank\">exposure to SARS-CoV-1 could confer some level immunity to SARS-CoV-2<\/a>. It is possible that <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" type=\"URL\" id=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41586-020-2349-y\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41586-020-2349-y\" target=\"_blank\">SARS-CoV-1 was more widespread than understood and now protective of those who were exposed<\/a>, possibly being causal of lower SARS-CoV-2 cases in Asia. Given that immunity is an analog rather than binary characteristic, it also would help explain asymptomatic COVID infections in Asia. Subclinical (unobserved) infections from SARS-CoV-1 appear to have been quite prevalent in Asia according to <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC2870380\/\" target=\"_blank\">Seroprevalence of IgG antibodies to SARS-coronavirus in asymptomatic or subclinical population groups<\/a>. Another study appeared to show <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" type=\"URL\" id=\"https:\/\/science.sciencemag.org\/content\/early\/2020\/11\/05\/science.abe1107\" href=\"https:\/\/science.sciencemag.org\/content\/early\/2020\/11\/05\/science.abe1107\" target=\"_blank\">cross reactive antibodies present in blood samples taken between 2011 and 2019.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"Outbreak-Natural-Immunization-Potentials\"><a href=\"#Outbreak-Natural-Immunization-Potentials\" data-type=\"internal\" data-id=\"#Outbreak-Natural-Immunization-Potentials\">Outbreak Natural Immunization Potentials<\/a><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>The 1000 fold range mentioned above is an easily hit target in some natural settings &#8211; a breezy place could be a natural random chance vaccination factory that exposes one to only a few virions &#8211; perhaps within a much narrower range. Repetitive low level exposure could further strengthen immune response. Perhaps a 15th century Chinese elder refining a variolation process is not needed. And perhaps it may be possible to access some life-saving individual and herd-immunity more rapidly than a modern vaccine that must be synthesized and then human trialed for safety and efficacy. While waiting for vaccine development and <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2020.10.03.20206110v6\" target=\"_blank\">limiting exposure to variolative ranges, individuals at low-risk for a severe case could gain immunity without becoming sick while enjoying normal outdoors activity<\/a>. Similarly, <a type=\"URL\" id=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/doi\/full\/10.1056\/NEJMp2026913?fbclid=IwAR3eZMR0_nrGqoZ6-nK7iw7VFTFDyWA2EmPZ00rrYq2YM0-bkXjX4dbkdH0\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/doi\/full\/10.1056\/NEJMp2026913?fbclid=IwAR3eZMR0_nrGqoZ6-nK7iw7VFTFDyWA2EmPZ00rrYq2YM0-bkXjX4dbkdH0\" target=\"_blank\">wearing masks indoors may also put exposure viral load into the variolation range<\/a> when kept within <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2020.10.03.20206110v6\" target=\"_blank\">limited time durations<\/a>. And it is certainly important to be conscientious to protect others in essential marketplaces using distance and other <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/covid-19-safety-information-ideas\/\" target=\"_blank\">Safety Protocols<\/a> to minimize infection probability of a vector [person] that then might bring the virus to a very high-risk for severe case individual or health care setting. <a href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/covid-19-the-correct-response\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Those in direct contact with the high-risk may need to forgo riskier settings during outbreaks<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"COVID-19-Immunity\"><a href=\"#COVID-19-Immunity\" data-type=\"internal\" data-id=\"#COVID-19-Immunity\">COVID-19 Immunity<\/a><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p id=\"20)-Here-we-show\">Many popular news stories have questioned whether someone who has recovered from COVID-19 has any immunity, claiming that antibody titers decreased within a few months and that <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/covid-19-antibody-testing\/#Back-To-Some-Simple-Statements-From-WHO\" target=\"_blank\">little of what we do know about SARS, MERS, or immunology in general applies to SARS-CoV-2<\/a>. While there is always much to learn, there are many counter-arguments to this claim. It is important to note that <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.virology.ws\/2009\/07\/22\/adaptive-immune-defenses-antibodies\/\" target=\"_blank\">IgG antibody titers generally peak during infection and generally subside dramatically several weeks after the infection resolves for virtually all types of viral infections.<\/a><br><br><strong>1)<\/strong> SARS-CoV-2 <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/covid-19-antibody-testing\/\" target=\"_blank\">antibody serology data<\/a> taken around the world demonstrates that people do develop antibodies that persist for significant periods of time. Large numbers of people have been found to have measurable IgG antibodies several months after infection.<br><br><strong>2)<\/strong> On the order of <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/covid-19-daily-reporting-is-misleading\/#16-to-27-Million\" target=\"_blank\">tens of millions<\/a> of people in the US have recovered from COVID-19 and the if the symptomatic re-infection percentage was large there would be a large concern &#8211; instead the documented cases of reinfection appear to be the rarity and\/or asymptomatic rather than the rule and the media has been rapid to report these cases via stories of anecdotal cases. That said, for any viral infection, it is not completely unusual for secondary infections to occur as they are most often milder and serve to <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/complexity\/2018\/9264743\/\" target=\"_blank\">strengthen future immune response<\/a>. While there may be a small statistical cluster of symptomatic \/ increasing symptom re-infection cases, it is not the large majority of cases.<br><br><strong>3)<\/strong> Two vaccines had positive results in rhesus macaques: <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.biospace.com\/article\/in-challenge-studies-with-monkeys-moderna-s-vaccine-protected-against-covid-19\/\" target=\"_blank\">&#8220;mRNA-1273 protected against a high dose SARS-CoV-2 infection in non-human primates and prevented pulmonary disease in all animals&#8221; and &#8220;\u201cThe virus was cleared very rapidly in the vaccinated animals,\u201d said Barney S. Graham, <strong>senior author<\/strong> of the study and deputy director of the Vaccine Research Center at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.&#8221;<\/a>.<br>Study excerpt: &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/doi\/full\/10.1056\/NEJMoa2024671?query=RP\" target=\"_blank\">At day 7, in animals vaccinated with 10 \u03bcg of mRNA-1273, inflammation was mild, and no viral RNA was detected (Figure 4A). However, at day 8, one animal in the 10-\u03bcg dose group had a single pneumocyte that was positive for viral antigen (Fig. S8). No substantial inflammation was observed in the lungs of nonhuman primates vaccinated with 100 \u03bcg of mRNA-1273, and neither viral RNA nor antigen was detected at day 7 or 8 after challenge (Figure 4A). In addition to the lung sections from these earlier time points, lung sections from animals that were killed at day 14 or 15 after challenge had no evidence of substantial inflammation, and neither viral RNA nor viral antigen was detected in any of the groups, including the control group<\/a>&#8220;.<br>Also see: <a href=\"#COVID-19-Vaccine-Study-Data\">COVID-19 Vaccine Study Data<\/a>.<br><br><strong>4)<\/strong> A SARS-CoV-2 live virus primary and re-exposure study on rhesus macaques appears to align with the current observations of human re-infections and suggests &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/science.sciencemag.org\/content\/early\/2020\/07\/01\/science.abc5343.long\" target=\"_blank\">that primary SARS-CoV-2 exposure protects against subsequent reinfection in rhesus macaques.<\/a>&#8220;. Another similar study stated &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/341529279_SARS-CoV-2_infection_protects_against_rechallenge_in_rhesus_macaques\" target=\"_blank\">SARS-CoV-2 infection in rhesus macaques led to humoral and cellular immune responses (Fig. 2) and provided protection against rechallenge<\/a>&#8220;. A <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.biorxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2020.03.13.990226v1.full\" target=\"_blank\">third study<\/a> showed similar results. Human re-infection challenge trials are being debated in ethics circles.<br><br><strong>5)<\/strong> More importantly, it is established general immunology, which COVID-19 cannot escape, that B memory cell prevalence is what maintains long-term immunity. There is not always a strong correlation between B memory cell prevalence and IgG antibody prevalence. It is normal and necessary for the body to eliminate antibodies over time. In fact, a bioscience Director of Research once quipped &#8220;<em>How would our immune system look if we were churning out massive amounts of antibodies to everything we ever encountered? We\u2019d be a giant lymph node<\/em>.&#8221;<br><br>Homeostatic processes maintain T and B memory cell populations. B cells appear to survive for long periods due to anti-apoptosis mechanisms. Antibodies, not being living cells, do not replicate \/ divide &#8211; they are produced by B cells. IgG antibodies tend to have half-lives on the order of 20 days. When B cells encounter an <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antigen\" target=\"_blank\">antigen<\/a>, the ones with receptors that bind with a certain affinity begin to proliferate and mature, first secreting IgM then undergoing a class shift and maturation to plasma cells that secrete <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antibody#Isotypes\" target=\"_blank\">IgG and IgA<\/a> depending various factors. Studies of a large set of different viruses have shown that &#8220;<strong><em><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/doi\/full\/10.1056\/NEJMoa066092\" target=\"_blank\">memory B-cell numbers did not correlate with antibody titers<\/a><\/em><\/strong>&#8220;. This means that having a low antibody count does not necessarily imply low B memory cell count or lack of long-term immunity; although it may be indicative, it also may not be indicative at all. B-cell prevalence is the best indicator of long-term immunity as B cells are the &#8216;factories&#8217; that create antibodies.<br><br><strong>6)<\/strong> <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/T_cell\" target=\"_blank\">T cell<\/a> mediated immunity. T cells that provide immunity were found in a study, regardless of antibody titer levels. T cells can<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/microbiology\/chapter\/b-lymphocytes-and-humoral-immunity\/\" target=\"_blank\"> activate B cells<\/a> and cause secretion of antibodies. <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cell.com\/cell\/fulltext\/S0092-8674(20)31008-4?rss=yes&amp;fbclid=IwAR2VKYOsse3g6KrXmNSwXZgSvXxi1kDfwWo68BPl-cLIc9uOwsAZid2dKAg\" target=\"_blank\">Importantly, SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells were detectable in antibody-seronegative exposed family members and convalescent individuals with a history of asymptomatic and mild COVID-19. Our collective dataset shows that SARS-CoV-2 elicits robust, broad and highly functional memory T cell responses, suggesting that natural exposure or infection may prevent recurrent episodes of severe COVID-19.<\/a><br><br><strong>7)<\/strong> A comprehensive study stated: &#8220;<a type=\"URL\" id=\"https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2020.08.11.20171843v2?fbclid=IwAR2rRlkfvHIEkSosxUkcLX79cy3ivHcay7Tbot2RACKHowXz2x-qeIl33uY\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2020.08.11.20171843v2?fbclid=IwAR2rRlkfvHIEkSosxUkcLX79cy3ivHcay7Tbot2RACKHowXz2x-qeIl33uY\" target=\"_blank\">we found that individuals that recovered from mildly symptomatic COVID-19 had an expanded arsenal of SARS-CoV-2-specific immune mediators: neutralizing antibodies, IgG+T-betlo classical MBCs, circulating cytokine-producing CXCR5+ Tfh1 cells, proliferating CXCR3+ CD4+ memory cells and IFN\u03b3 producing CD8+ T cells that were maintained to at least three months post-symptom onset. This study predicts that these recovered individuals will be protected from a second SARS-CoV-2 infection and, if so, suggests that Th1 memory should be the target of vaccine elicited memory<\/a>&#8220;.<br><br><strong>8)<\/strong> Direct secondary exposure and immunity of humans was documented on a fishing expedition where many people became infected during the expedition, but those who had antibodies from a prior infection were protected. <a type=\"URL\" id=\"https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2020.08.13.20173161v1\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2020.08.13.20173161v1\" target=\"_blank\">&#8220;Predeparture serological and viral RT-PCR testing along with repeat testing after return to shore was available for 120 of the 122 persons on board over a median follow-up of 32.5 days (range 18.8 to 50.5 days).&#8221; and it was found that &#8220;the presence of neutralizing antibodies from prior infection was significantly associated with protection against re-infection&#8221;.<\/a><em><strong><br><\/strong><\/em><br><strong>9)<\/strong> A <a type=\"internal\" id=\"#A-popular-news-media-story\" href=\"#A-popular-news-media-story\">popular news<\/a> media story &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.yahoo.com\/news\/how-worrying-are-reports-man-reinfected-with-coronavirus-184617174.html\" target=\"_blank\">How worrying are reports the first person in the world has been re-infected with coronavirus?<\/a>&#8221; seems to have a worrisome title implying that it may be necessary to &#8220;worry&#8221; about being &#8220;re-infected&#8221; and that immunity does not exist. However, when looking into the details of the story and the s<a type=\"URL\" id=\"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/cid\/advance-article\/doi\/10.1093\/cid\/ciaa1275\/5897019\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/cid\/advance-article\/doi\/10.1093\/cid\/ciaa1275\/5897019\" target=\"_blank\">cientific study that led to the story<\/a>, it can be concluded that the study documents that the patient did not experience symptoms and otherwise demonstrated one of the longest periods of immunity to date. When re-challenged by the virus 4.5 months later, the patient was <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/asymptomatic-pre-symptomatic-and-definitions\/\" target=\"_blank\">asymptomatic<\/a> and did not present any signs of illness. In fact, the detailed scientific study indicated that no IgG antibodies were measurable at day 1, but they were present on or before day 5 which implies that the patent was protected by B \/ T cell mediated responses and then began developing measurable IgG antibodies within a few days. The study also indicated that viral loads decreased during the period the patient was observed, implying that viral load shedding was minimal and that the patient was not rapidly replicating the virus &#8211; which would mean the patient might have been slightly infectious, but not strongly so, and became consistently less infectious during the period of observation. Additionally the second exposure re-challenge was from a slightly mutated SARS-CoV-2 viral genome that was different from the first primary infection the patient experienced, yet the patient did not become ill during the second exposure and appeared to be protected by B\/T cell mediated immunity that rapidly secreted IgG from existing SARS-CoV-2 specific B cells. This study may also be showing the negative impact of excessive isolation measures on the rapid immunity of those who have recovered, as it took a few days to rebuild IgG antibody levels, creating a short window of being somewhat infectious to others. <em><strong>Somehow, the good news of a scientifically documented case of someone appearing to exhibit immunity after 4.5 months, turned into a &#8220;worrisome&#8221; news headline.<\/strong><\/em><br><br><strong>10)<\/strong> Viewpoint article from JAMA on achieving SARS-CoV-2 immunity: <a type=\"URL\" id=\"https:\/\/jamanetwork.com\/journals\/jama\/fullarticle\/2770758\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/jamanetwork.com\/journals\/jama\/fullarticle\/2770758\" target=\"_blank\">COVID-19 and the Path to Immunity<\/a><br><br><strong>11)<\/strong>  A Science Immunology article entitled <a type=\"URL\" id=\"https:\/\/immunology.sciencemag.org\/content\/5\/52\/eabe0367\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/immunology.sciencemag.org\/content\/5\/52\/eabe0367\" target=\"_blank\">Persistence and decay of human antibody responses to the receptor binding domain of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in COVID-19 patients<\/a> measured &#8220;plasma and\/or serum antibody responses to the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the spike (S) protein of SARS-CoV-2 in 343 North American patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 (of which 93% required hospitalization) up to 122 days after symptom onset&#8221;. A similar article had additional information <a type=\"URL\" id=\"https:\/\/immunology.sciencemag.org\/content\/5\/52\/eabe5511\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/immunology.sciencemag.org\/content\/5\/52\/eabe5511\" target=\"_blank\">Persistence of serum and saliva antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 spike antigens in COVID-19 patients<\/a>.<br><br><strong>12)<\/strong> <a type=\"URL\" id=\"https:\/\/www.cell.com\/immunity\/fulltext\/S1074-7613(20)30445-3\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cell.com\/immunity\/fulltext\/S1074-7613(20)30445-3\" target=\"_blank\">Neutralizing and spike-specific antibody production persists for at least 5-7 months<\/a><br><br><strong>13)<\/strong> <a type=\"URL\" id=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41586-020-2349-y\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41586-020-2349-y\" target=\"_blank\">Cross-neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 by a human monoclonal SARS-CoV antibody<\/a>. &#8220;An antibody first identified in a blood sample from a <a type=\"URL\" id=\"https:\/\/newsroom.uw.edu\/news\/antibody-neutralizes-sars-and-covid-19-coronaviruses\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/newsroom.uw.edu\/news\/antibody-neutralizes-sars-and-covid-19-coronaviruses\" target=\"_blank\">patient who recovered from Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome in 2003 inhibits related coronaviruses, including the cause of COVID-19<\/a>&#8220;<br><br><strong>14)<\/strong> <a type=\"URL\" id=\"https:\/\/www.biorxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2020.11.01.362319v1\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.biorxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2020.11.01.362319v1\" target=\"_blank\">Robust SARS-CoV-2-specific T-cell immunity is maintained at 6 months following primary infection<\/a><br><br><strong>15)<\/strong> <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.biorxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2020.11.15.383323v1\" target=\"_blank\">Immunological memory to SARS-CoV-2 assessed for greater than six months after infection<\/a> which is now published as <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/science.sciencemag.org\/content\/early\/2021\/01\/05\/science.abf4063?fbclid=IwAR3Jt-lId5eGTMd9_tpFqGBr7FUvo4u5s51vCm6qPSS1RYI2RnFvua84gO4\" target=\"_blank\">Immunological memory to SARS-CoV-2 assessed for up to 8 months after infection<\/a><br><br><strong>16)<\/strong> Rapid generation of durable B cell memory to SARS-CoV-2 spike and nucleocapsid proteins in COVID-19 and convalescence. <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/immunology.sciencemag.org\/content\/5\/54\/eabf8891\" target=\"_blank\">&#8220;As we have shown that SARS-CoV-2-specific Bmem cell numbers are stable over time, we propose that these Bmem may represent a more robust marker of long-lived humoral immune responses than serum antibodies&#8230; our results indicate that SARS-CoV-2 infection generates long-lasting B cell memory up to 8 months post-infection that could be protective against systemic disease upon reinfection.&#8221;<\/a> And it&#8217;s likely to be much more than 8 months as that was a time limitation of the study.<br><br><strong>17)<\/strong><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/wwwnc.cdc.gov\/eid\/article\/27\/3\/20-4543_article\" target=\"_blank\"> Antibody Responses 8 Months after Asymptomatic or Mild SARS-CoV-2 Infection<\/a>: <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/wwwnc.cdc.gov\/eid\/article\/27\/3\/20-4543_article\" target=\"_blank\">&#8220;We analyzed data from 7 participants with asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection and 51 patients with mildly symptomatic COVID-19 (Table 1). Eight months after their infections, we detected anti-N pan-Ig in 53 (91.4%), anti-N IgG in 15 (25.9%), anti-S IgG in 50 (86.2%), and anti-S1 IgG in 40 (69.0%) (p&lt;0.01) (Table 2). The sVNT found positive neutralizing activity for 31 (53.4%).&#8221;<\/a><br><br><strong>18)<\/strong> <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/doi\/full\/10.1056\/NEJMoa2034545\" target=\"_blank\">Antibody Status and Incidence of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Health Care Workers: &#8220;The presence of anti-spike or anti-nucleocapsid IgG antibodies was associated with a substantially reduced risk of SARS-CoV-2 reinfection in the ensuing 6 months&#8221;<\/a><br><br><strong>19)<\/strong> <a data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41586-021-03207-w\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41586-021-03207-w\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">The humoral memory response in a cohort of 87&nbsp;individuals assessed at 1.3 and 6.2&nbsp;months after infection with SARS-CoV-2. We find that titres of IgM and IgG antibodies against the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 decrease significantly over this time period, with IgA being less affected. Concurrently, neutralizing activity in plasma decreases by fivefold in pseudotype virus assays. By contrast, the number of RBD-specific memory B&nbsp;cells remains unchanged at 6.2&nbsp;months after infection. Memory B&nbsp;cells display clonal turnover after 6.2&nbsp;months, and the antibodies that they express have greater somatic hypermutation, resistance to RBD mutations and increased potency, indicative of continued evolution of the humoral response.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p id=\"20)-Here-we-show\"><strong>20)<\/strong> Here we show that of the 32 individuals tested that were born in or before 1915, each showed seroreactivity with the 1918 virus, nearly 90 years after the pandemic. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nature07231\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">We isolated B cells from subjects and generated five monoclonal antibodies that showed potent neutralizing activity against 1918 virus from three separate donors. These antibodies also cross-reacted with the genetically similar HA of a 1930 swine H1N1 influenza strain<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"Immunity-Summary\"><a href=\"#Immunity-Summary\" data-type=\"internal\" data-id=\"#Immunity-Summary\">Immunity Summary<\/a><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p id=\"A-popular-news-media-story\">While it is possible that SARS-CoV-2 immunity might be short-lived, <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/hartfordhealthcare.org\/find-a-doctor\/physician-detail?id=003j000000GD2mTAAT\" target=\"_blank\">Dr. Faiqa Cheema<\/a>, an HHC infectious disease specialist, stated that most people who get infected with COVID-19 will have an immune response. Some responses will be better than others. &#8220;It can be assumed safely that this immune response will offer some level of protection, at least for this year,\u201d she said. \u201c<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/hartfordhealthcare.org\/about-us\/news-press\/news-detail?articleid=26868&amp;publicId=395\" target=\"_blank\">At this time, we do not know how long this immunity will last<\/a>.\u201d. Many sources including Dr. Fauci are expecting an approved vaccine before that year elapses. Again, knowing that B memory cells are what produce antibodies, a lack of antibodies does not confirm lack of immunity. Presence of T cells also indicate immunity. It is also known that <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/vaccines\/hcp\/acip-recs\/general-recs\/timing.html\" target=\"_blank\">repeat exposure tends<\/a> tends to result in<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK27158\/\" target=\"_blank\"> both stronger and longer immunity<\/a>. &#8220;Repeat exposure has the effect of refining IgG affinity of the antibodies and boosting the number of memory cells&#8221;.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p id=\"A-popular-news-media-story\">A Journal Of Immunology article stated: &#8220;<a type=\"URL\" id=\"https:\/\/www.jimmunol.org\/content\/early\/2020\/09\/03\/jimmunol.2000839\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jimmunol.org\/content\/early\/2020\/09\/03\/jimmunol.2000839\" target=\"_blank\">the normal cadence by which we discuss science with our colleagues failed to properly convey likelihoods of the immune response to SARS-CoV-2 to the public and the media. As a result, biologically implausible outcomes were given equal weight as the principles set by decades of viral immunology. Unsurprisingly, questionable results and alarmist news media articles have filled the void. We suggest an emphasis on setting expectations based on prior findings while avoiding the overused approach of assuming nothing. After reviewing Ab-mediated immunity after coronavirus and other acute viral infections, we posit that, with few exceptions, the development of protective humoral immunity of more than a year is the norm. Immunity to SARS-CoV-2 is likely to follow the same pattern<\/a>.&#8221;<br><br>It is likely that B memory cells related to COVID-19 would persist for many years, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nature07231\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">possibly decades<\/a>. It is expected that during those years, the SARS-CoV-2 virus will mutate sufficiently to partially evade the immune response and protection will gradually diminish over time; although, s<a href=\"#Polyclonal-Immune-Response\">ubsequent exposure to the mutating virus over those years will build additional B memory diversity<\/a> that will track those viral mutations. It is also likely that wide exposure \/ recovery during the pandemic and subsequent vaccination will <a href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/evidence-for-covid-19-vaccine-deferred-dose-2-boost-timing\/#Mutating-Viral-Escape\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">dramatically reduce mutations as total viral replications subside<\/a>. What&#8217;s most likely to occur, given general immunology understandings, is that, as the pandemic winds down, people who were vaccinated-against \/ recovered-from the early circulating 2019 virus will encounter a variant that developed during the pandemic peaks and develop an asymptomatic \/ minor infection, develop additional B \/ T \/ antibody diversity that covers the variant while the original B \/ T \/ antibody diversity largely clears the minor infection, and be then be protected against variants for many years to come as mutation \/ variant production subsides due to dramatically lower mutation rates as a result of the herd-immunity gained during the pandemic and 2021 vaccination efforts. It is unlikely that a continuing set of variant waves will cause a continuing set of pandemics, although it is likely that variant vaccines will continue to be marketed along with flu vaccines. We now have <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41586-021-03647-4\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">direct evidence of COVID-19 related long-lived plasma cells (LLPC)<\/a> that suggest immunity will last for many years \/ decades.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"Virus-Lab-Experiments\"><a href=\"#Virus-Lab-Experiments\">Virus Lab Experiments<\/a><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p id=\"A-popular-news-media-story\">If this virus did indeed escape a lab, it is possible that future escapes will occur. While there is absolutely no desire for anyone to pander to conspiracy theories, it is known that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gain_of_function_research\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">gain of function<\/a> lab experiments intended to develop understanding of how viruses mutate over decades and centuries and move to humans from animal reservoirs do occur. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PREDICT_(USAID)\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">PREDICT operated on five-year funding cycles,[5] receiving about $200 million over the course of its decade in operation<\/a>. While it is not publicly known exactly what experiments were executing during those 10 years, there are known possible experiments that could occur. For example, an experimental process could accelerate mutation through scientifically engineered selection processes. A zoonotic virus that does not normally infect humans can be experimentally exposed to human cells <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC1769406\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">under conditions which maximize success of infection and any resulting viral infection is then harvested for the next generation of exposure. This process is rapidly repeated until the virus becomes adept at infecting<\/a> human cells. This process is known as <a href=\"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/bies.202000091\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">serial passage<\/a>. More direct genetic engineering methods are also <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nature.2015.18787\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">available and utilized<\/a>. The process can create something that would naturally take 10s to 1000s of years to occur naturally. In fact, it may never occur naturally, because the human immune system would adapt incrementally &#8220;each year&#8221; and prevent this kind of large gap mutation from ever occurring without a corresponding development of immunity via the <a href=\"#Polyclonal-Immune-Response\">polyclonal immune response<\/a> that accompanies infections and then halts or severely limits the mutation process going forward. If the lab experiment escapes, the virus with a large unnatural mutation gap will then interact with human immune systems and likely result in a pandemic which the experiment was seeking to predict rather than cause. But again, in nature, the human immune response would develop alongside the viral mutation, preventing the large gap. Only a naive scientist (or one curious beyond reason) would not understand that this kind of experiment does not have any real predictive ability, although it does have the ability to create dangerous viral mutations.<br><br><em>As a proponent of <strong>virus research in China, Dr. Anthony Fauci <\/strong>stated in a October 9, 2012 article<\/em>: <a href=\"https:\/\/journals.asm.org\/doi\/full\/10.1128\/mBio.00359-12\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">&#8220;<strong><em>Putting aside the specter of bioterrorism<\/em><\/strong> for the moment, consider this hypothetical scenario: an important gain-of-function experiment involving a virus with serious pandemic potential is performed in a well-regulated, world-class laboratory by experienced investigators, but the information from the experiment is then used by another scientist who does not have the same training and facilities and is not subject to the same regulations. In an unlikely but conceivable turn of events,<strong><em> what if that scientist becomes infected with the virus, which leads to an outbreak and ultimately triggers a pandemic?<\/em><\/strong> Many ask reasonable questions: given the possibility of such a scenario\u2014however remote\u2014should the initial experiments have been performed and\/or published in the first place, and what were the processes involved in this decision? <strong>Scientists working in this field might say\u2014<span style=\"color:#c53d2b\" class=\"has-inline-color\"><em>as indeed I have said<\/em>\u2014that the benefits of such experiments and the resulting knowledge outweigh the risks<\/span><\/strong>&#8220;<\/a>.<br><br><a href=\"https:\/\/www.latimes.com\/science\/story\/2020-04-02\/coronavirus-trump-pandemic-program-viruses-detection\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Two months before the novel coronavirus is thought to have begun its deadly advance in Wuhan, China, the Trump administration ended a $200-million pandemic early-warning program aimed at training scientists in China and other countries to detect and respond to such a threat.<\/a> Interestingly, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gain_of_function_research\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">On 19 December 2017 under the Trump administration, the NIH lifted the Obama moratorium into GoFR<\/a>. As one might imagine, the research could be &#8220;marketed&#8221; as beneficial and an inappropriate shutdown as part of partisan politics. It can only be guessed what was really happening &#8220;under the hood&#8221; by those who desired GoFR funding, satisfying intellectual curiosities, etc.<strong><em> One point of clarity is that both Obama and Trump administrations placed moratoriums on Gain of Function research but it is not clear why GoFR funding had to be halted twice, first by Obama, and then again by Trump.<\/em><\/strong><br><br>A zoonotic disease research program was <a href=\"https:\/\/www.the-scientist.com\/news-opinion\/zoonotic-disease-research-program-shut-down-66641\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">launched after an H5N1 bird flu outbreak, Predict was part of an effort to search for previously undiscovered zoonotic diseases, which are passed from animals to humans. Viruses such as AIDS, SARS, MERS, Ebola, and certain influenza strains originally came from animals. Researchers found more than 1,000 new viruses from animal samples collected during the program\u2019s run, including a new Ebola strain<\/a>. A Lancet paper suggests that new programs should replace it: &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.thelancet.com\/journals\/lanmic\/article\/PIIS2666-5247(20)30002-1\/fulltext\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">As new funding opportunities pick up where PREDICT left off, making this work a priority will help move the field towards risk assessment that supports targeted prevention efforts<\/a>&#8221; Interestingly, in 2018, an article <a href=\"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/protocol\/10.1007\/978-1-4939-8678-1_29\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">&#8220;makes the case against performing exceptionally dangerous gain-of-function experiments.&#8221;. It concludes that: &#8220;the unique scientific and public health value of [potential pandemic pathogens] PPP experiments is inadequate to justify the unique risks they entail and that researchers would be well-advised to turn their talents to other methodologies that will be safe and more rewarding scientifically.&#8221;<\/a><br><br>Interestingly, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.taiwannews.com.tw\/en\/news\/4104828\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">it appears that just before the start of the pandemic, the WIV was using GoF experiments with chimeras in an attempt to create a vaccine. These experiments appeared to have included infecting mice genetically modified to express the human ACE2 protein with these chimeras.<\/a> While it&#8217;s very speculative to identify the origin of SARS-CoV-2, it is clear that gain of function experiments are dangerous. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7120709\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Many pandemics appear to have zoonotic origins.<\/a> &#8220;The National Institutes of Health earmarked $600,000 for the <a href=\"https:\/\/nypost.com\/2021\/05\/23\/three-wuhan-lab-workers-were-hospitalized-in-november-2019-report\/\">Wuhan Institute of Virology<\/a> over a five-year period to study whether bat coronaviruses could be transmitted to humans, <a href=\"https:\/\/nypost.com\/2021\/05\/25\/fauci-admits-nih-funding-of-wuhan-lab-denies-gain-of-function\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">White House chief medical adviser Dr. Anthony Fauci told lawmakers Tuesday<\/a>.&#8221; 5\/25\/2021<br><br>Construction of bat SARS-CoV pathogens for experiments on human ACE2 cells are documented to have occurred; for example: <a href=\"https:\/\/journals.plos.org\/plospathogens\/article?id=10.1371\/journal.ppat.1006698\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Using the reverse genetics technique we previously developed for WIV1 [23], <strong>we constructed a group of infectious bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) clones<\/strong> with the backbone of WIV1 and variants of S genes from 8 different bat SARSr-CoVs. Only the infectious clones for Rs4231 and Rs7327 led to cytopathic effects in Vero E6 cells after transfection (S7 Fig). The other six strains with deletions in the RBD region, Rf4075, Rs4081, Rs4085, Rs4235, As6526 and Rp3 (S1 Fig) failed to be rescued, as no cytopathic effects was observed and viral replication cannot be detected by immunofluorescence assay in Vero E6 cells (S7 Fig). In contrast, when Vero E6 cells were respectively infected with the two successfully rescued chimeric SARSr-CoVs, WIV1-Rs4231S and WIV1-Rs7327S, and the newly isolated Rs4874, efficient virus replication was detected in all infections (Fig 7). <strong>To assess whether the three novel SARSr-CoVs can use human ACE2 as a cellular entry receptor<\/strong>, we conducted virus infectivity studies using HeLa cells with or without the expression of human ACE2. <strong>All viruses replicated efficiently in the human ACE2-expressing cells<\/strong>. The results were further confirmed by quantification of viral RNA using real-time RT-PCR<\/a>. <strong>This work was jointly funded by<\/strong> National Natural Science Foundation of China (81290341, 31621061) to ZLS, China Mega-Project for Infectious Disease (2014ZX10004001-003) to ZLS, Scientific and technological basis special project (2013FY113500) to YZZ and ZLS from the Ministry of Science and Technology of China, the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (XDPB0301) to ZLS, <strong>the National Institutes of Health (NIAID R01AI110964)<\/strong>, the <strong>USAID Emerging Pandemic Threats (EPT) PREDICT program to PD and ZLS<\/strong>, CAS Pioneer Hundred Talents Program to JC, NRF-CRP grant (NRF-CRP10-2012-05) to LFW and WIV \u201cOne-Three-Five\u201d Strategic Program (WIV-135-TP1) to JC and ZLS.<br><br>One study demonstrated synthetic construction of a new coronavirus: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.pnas.org\/content\/113\/11\/3048\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Both wild-type and chimeric WIV-CoV infectious clones were designed using published sequences and based on the SARS-CoV infectious clone (10). Synthetic construction of chimeric mutant and full-length WIV1-CoV were approved by the UNC Institutional Biosafety Committee and the Dual Use Research of Concern Committee.<\/a><br><br>Some other NIH studies stated: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4797993\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">&#8220;<strong><em>we synthesized the SHC014 spike in the context of the replication-competent, mouse-adapted SARS-CoV backbone (we hereafter refer to the chimeric CoV as SHC014-MA15) to maximize the opportunity for pathogenesis<\/em><\/strong> and vaccine studies in mice&#8221;<\/a> and another: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6132729\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">&#8220;In order to continue working with unaltered human clinical isolates of SARS-CoV, <strong><em>mouse strains constitutively expressing the human receptor for SARS-CoV, human angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (hACE2), were generated.<\/em><\/strong>&#8220;<\/a> One could interpret this to mean that mice were genetically altered to have human genomic content via chimeric processes so that they have a humanized ACE2 (where ACE2 facilitates viral entry to a cell) and that a synthetic\/altered virus spike was created on an existing SARS-CoV virus and the mice were infected with it. When these are put together, a virus with a synthetic spike engineered to infect the humanized mice is available and replicated inside infected mice. Add a little time and selective pressure and the virus would be ready for the NIAID\/Moderna team to <a href=\"https:\/\/twitter.com\/ReallycorrectC\/status\/1445276312436764672\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">test the mRNA vaccine they had been co-developing<\/a>. Or something like that. Whatever these experiments were that went further, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.yahoo.com\/news\/wuhan-scientists-planned-release-skin-145326380.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">DARPA chose not to fund them<\/a> stating that they entailed to much risk of leading to a pandemic. <br><br><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20211006101612\/https:\/\/www.telegraph.co.uk\/world-news\/2021\/10\/05\/wuhan-us-scientists-planned-create-new-coronaviruses-funding\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">&#8220;Darpa proposals, leaked to the pandemic origins analysis group Drastic, show the team had planned to take sequences from naturally occurring coronaviruses and use them to create a brand new sequence that was an average of all the strains. The grant application, submitted in 2018, states: &#8220;We will compile sequence\/RNAseq data from a panel of closely related strains and compare full length genomes, scanning for unique SNPs representing sequencing errors. &#8220;Consensus candidate genomes will be synthesised commercially using established techniques and genome-length RNA and electroporation to recover recombinant viruses.&#8221;&#8221;<\/a><br><br><a href=\"https:\/\/drasticresearch.org\/2021\/09\/20\/1583\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">&#8220;DRASTIC was recently made aware of documents provided by a whistleblower, which show that EcoHealth Alliance (EHA) in concert wIth the Wuhan Institute of Virology (WIV) attempted to carry out advanced and dangerous human pathogenicity Bat Coronavirus research that would clearly qualify as Gain of Function (GoF), in a grant proposal submitted to the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in 2018.&#8221;<\/a><br><br><a href=\"https:\/\/ahrp.org\/what-is-gain-of-function-research-who-is-at-high-risk\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">&#8220;GoF experiments have neither prevented a pandemic, nor provided useful information about safe and effective pandemic countermeasures. Numerous prominent scientists argue that these experiments deviate from morally justifiable research, and the experimentally altered pathogens have put the entire human species at risk&#8221;.<\/a> &#8211; <strong><em>Alliance for Human Research Protection <a href=\"https:\/\/ahrp.org\/advisory-board\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">(AHRP which has about 40 distinguished doctors on it&#8217;s advisory board)<\/a><\/em><\/strong><br><br>While it may be helpful to surveil, observe, and take action against bats and other animal viral reservoirs to minimize zoonotic pathogen jumps to humans, it is not helpful and very dangerous to perform experiments that optimize conditions such that human cell infection occurs in the lab and produces viral progeny genetically engineered and\/or selected for human cell infection.<br><br>Currently, it is indeterminate as to whether the COVID-19 pandemic was caused Virus Lab Experiments; but it is clear that these kind of experiments are much more likely to cause pandemics than they are to prevent them. These kind of experiments should not be done.<br><br><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4797993\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Synthetic construction of chimeric mutant and full-length SHC014-CoV has occurred in labs<\/a>, resulting in significant epitope changes from the natural virus from which a novel coronavirus was derived. Large epitope changes render prior immune response to the natural virus much less effective and create new and large challenges to the adaptive immune system. The unique epitopes of SARS-CoV-2 suggest that it is a result of laboratory process, not a natural variant of a naturally occurring virus. As can be seen in the tutorial below, immune responses from natural infection and vaccines generate a polyclonal B\/T\/antibody response that is largely protective against variants. Only large variation would likely create such a novel threat such that existing antibody\/B\/T responses yield little\/no protection. The rapid rate at which SARS-CoV-2 spread throughout the world suggests that it&#8217;s highly infectious epitopes were a result of an efficiency improving lab process that improves virus function. <a href=\"#Polyclonal-Immune-Response\">The large gap between SARS-CoV-2 and other viruses to which polyclonal immune responses has occurred in humans further suggests that it is a result of lab processes.<\/a><br><br>Additionally, <a href=\"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/bies.202000240\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">(1) the presence of a furin cleavage site missing in other CoVs of the same group and (2) an receptor binding domain (RBD) optimized to bind to human cells<sup>[2]<\/sup>&nbsp;might be the result of lab manipulation techniques such as site-directed mutagenesis. The acquisition of both unique features by SARS-CoV-2 more or less simultaneously is less likely to be natural or caused only by cell\/animal serial passage.<\/a> Given this discovery, <strong><em>in an article released August 2020, some researchers created a variant SARS-CoV-2 virus in a lab <\/em><\/strong>that removed this furin cleavage site that was unique to SARS-CoV-2. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7457603\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">&#8220;To explore this question, we generated a SARS-CoV-2 mutant lacking the furin cleavage site (\u0394PRRA) in the spike protein. <strong><em>This mutant virus [we created in the lab] replicated with faster kinetics and improved fitness in Vero E6 cells.<\/em><\/strong>&#8220;<\/a>. While <a href=\"https:\/\/twitter.com\/ReallycorrectC\/status\/1452509012222562309\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Fauci would likely deny that this was &#8220;Gain of Function&#8221;<\/a>, the semantics are secondary to the fact that this lab created virus &#8211; <em>after the pandemic started<\/em> &#8211; that resulted in a variant with &#8220;improved fitness&#8221;.<br><br><a href=\"https:\/\/nypost.com\/2021\/11\/04\/letter-confirms-wuhan-lab-virus-study-was-funded-by-taxpayers\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">A letter from Lawrence Tabak, the National Institutes of Health\u2019s principal deputy director, to Rep. James Comer (R-Ky.) confirms that the NIH funded research at the WIV during 2018-2019 that manipulated a bat coronavirus called WIV1. Researchers at the institute grafted spike proteins from other coronaviruses onto WIV1 to see if the modified virus was capable of binding in a mouse that possessed the ACE2 receptors found in humans \u2014 the same receptor to which SARS-CoV-2 binds. The modified virus reproduced more rapidly and made infected humanized mice sicker than the unmodified virus.<\/a><br><br><a href=\"https:\/\/www.foxnews.com\/politics\/rand-paul-anthony-fauci-senate-hearing-gain-of-function\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Up until recently, the NIH website had a section that discussed gain of function research, providing a broad definition of &#8220;a type of research that modifies a biological agent so that it confers new or enhanced activity to that agent.&#8221;. On Oct. 20, the NIH removed that section from its website, replacing it with one that discusses &#8220;enhanced potential pandemic pathogen&#8221; research, which it defined as &#8220;research that may be reasonably anticipated to create, transfer or use potential pandemic pathogens resulting from the enhancement of a pathogen\u2019s transmissibility and\/or virulence in humans.&#8221;<\/a><br><br>Sadly, experiments continue to synthetically create new viruses that could be dangerous should they escape a lab. <strong><em>A study published October 2021 stated:<\/em><\/strong> &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/advs.202102181\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">The DNA sequences of codon-optimized SARS-CoV-2 Spike RBD (S-RBD) and human ACE2 extracellular domain (<em>h<\/em>ACE2-ECD) were <strong><em>cloned into a pFuse-Fc expression vector<\/em><\/strong> (Invivogen). A <em><strong>thrombin cleavage sequence was inserted between the RBD and Fc to generate a cleavable hFc tag for future studies<\/strong><\/em>.<\/a>&#8220;.<br><br><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"Tutorial-Reading\"><br><a href=\"#Tutorial-Reading\">Tutorial Reading<\/a><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Here are some &#8220;tutorial level&#8221; respiratory coronavirus infection and immune response understandings intended as an overview that are not perfect but helpful as a starting point for further learning.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>A person exposed to a respiratory viral load has a probability of becoming infected that increases with the amount of the viral load. When a cell becomes infected it reproduces the virus <a href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/covid-19-staying-healthy\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">on the order of 1000 to 10000 fold before the cell dies; the first of which are &#8220;birthed&#8221; after 6 hours or so<\/a>, resulting in an exponential growth of viral population. After the first generation of virions bud out of the cell, some are &#8220;birthed&#8221; externally back into the respiratory tract where they can infect other cells by moving through the airway. Some are birthed almost directly into nearby cells. Some are birthed into <a href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/covid-19-staying-healthy\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">interstitial fluids that travel via the lymphatic system into the lymph nodes<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.news-medical.net\/news\/20210302\/SARS-CoV-2-viremia-predicts-severe-COVID-19-disease-outcomes.aspx\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">usually<\/a> almost <a href=\"https:\/\/www.healthline.com\/health\/viremia#causes\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">none make it into the blood circulatory system<\/a>. The virions that contact B\/T cells (immune cells which freely travel the circulatory\/lymphatic system, but are strongly concentrated in the lymph nodes), activate an adaptive immune response. The sooner this activation occurs, especially activation within the lymph nodes, the more rapidly that adaptive immune response can begin maturing, which produces helpful IgM in about 5 days and much more helpful IgG that increases maturity \/ specificity over a period of a few weeks. So the race between <em><strong>exponential viral replication<\/strong><\/em> vs <strong><em>adaptive immune response maturation<\/em> and exponential immune response growth<\/strong> can dramatically impact symptoms and pathological damage outcomes. Given exponential viral growth, hours and days can result in dramatically different outcomes. Exercise and anything else that speeds the adaptive immune activation and maturation is usually very helpful to improving the immune response before the exponential viral growth becomes larger and more widespread. Prior immune response (caused by prior infection or vaccination) dramatically improves response time because B\/T cell immune response maturation and antibody secretion has already occurred and can be re-activated within several hours depending upon exercise levels, etc.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/immunology-vaccines-viral-loads-symptom-severity-and-immunity\/#Tutorial-Reading\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">A larger initial exposure viral load can cause increased severity because the exponential viral replication reaches much higher levels before the immune system can respond<\/a>. This results in dramatically greater viral damage. The increased viral presence also tends to activate a more intense immune response which may result in increased systemic damage from the immune response. <a href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/covid-19-safety-information-ideas\/#Viral-Load-Exposure-Factors\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Reducing viral loads<\/a> into a <a href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/immunology-vaccines-viral-loads-symptom-severity-and-immunity\/#Outbreak-Natural-Immunization-Potentials\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>variolative<\/strong><\/a> or minor infection range can significantly reduce the likelihood of a severe case. <a href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/covid-19-staying-healthy\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">A regular regimen of a few cycles of normal daily exercise improves immune response \/ speed pre-exposure and immediately following exposure to minimize likelihood of illness<\/a>.<br><br>It is possible to minimize severity of illness by slowing the exponential growth of viral load that develops shortly after exposure which helps the adaptive immune response to mature before exponential viral growth becomes extremely large. The innate immune response tends to slow natural infections; and intelligent behavior (such as using <a href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/covid-19-safety-information-ideas\/#Surface-Transmission,-Temperature,-Humidity,-And-Inactivation\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">viral inactivation<\/a> substances such as mouthwash, toothpaste, essential oils \/ breath-mints \/ breath-strips, zinc, small amounts of ethyl alcohol, etc.), can slow the exponential growth such that B\/T cell activation \/maturation occurs before exponential growth of antigen becomes large. Mints and <a href=\"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10787-020-00744-0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">essential oils<\/a> have been recognized as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5694587\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">helpful for many centuries<\/a>, and many modern mouthwashes that kill bacteria and inactivate viruses are now essential oil rather than alcohol based. Swishing fractions of an ounce of high-percentage ethyl alcohol (hard liquor) into the throat area with tickle\/minor-irritation every few hours tends to slow viral growth, although once viral damage to the tissues becomes significant, this tends to create further irritation \/ tissue damage; and larger amounts of ethyl alcohol may negatively impact immune system response, so this tends to be optimal only for very early &#8220;tickle&#8221; stages of illness. Placing 1\/16th of a zinc supplement (nibble off a small piece) and\/or a few grains of salt in room temperature or slightly warm water will make the water much more pleasant to drink, which may help you to remain well hydrated. The zinc also seems to have a throat soothing effect (try it) and may have some mild topical protective characteristics and this tends to be effective in both early and later stages of illness. Just a nibble of a zinc mineral supplement and a few grains of salt go a long way and also tend to make water less irritating to the sore throat &#8211; thus encouraging increased hydration which is also helpful. Salt water gargling tends to be helpful. Swishing saliva around within the mouth and onto irritated areas helps to keep them moist and in some cases will help mucosal antibodies find and bind to viruses that may be present near the irritated area that is replicating virus. This can be particularly helpful during re-exposures and in later stages of infections where significant virus specific antibodies may be present within the saliva. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Histamine#Effects_on_nasal_mucous_membrane\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Histamine responses<\/a> also tend to increase likelihood of antibody encounters with viruses within mucosal tissues and also help to purge virus from the body through sneeze and runny nose responses.<br><br>It is likely that many infections and transmissions can be avoided or minimized through the use of breath-mints \/ breath strips during and following potential exposure encounters.<br><br>When sick, highly aerobic activity can undesirably facilitate virus movement deeper within the airway and into the lungs, yet light exercise such as walking can stimulate blood\/lymph flow without resulting the deep respiration that internally spreads virus within the airway. Similarly, fresh air and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2021.03.11.21253421v1.full\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">avoiding rebreathing &#8220;sick-room&#8221; viral laden air<\/a> can help avoid spreading the infection within the airway. Perhaps obviously, keeping considerable physical distance from others while enjoying fresh outdoor air will dilute any viral load that might be <a href=\"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ofid\/advance-article\/doi\/10.1093\/ofid\/ofab259\/6278371\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">shedding<\/a> when sick and wearing masks can help while in careful transit to some wide open personal space containing fresh air.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Antibodies &#8220;neutralize&#8221; and\/or &#8220;tag&#8221; coronaviruses by &#8220;binding&#8221; to the virus &#8220;spike protein&#8221; and thus occupy the spike area that tries to attach to a cell and invade the cell. Antibodies are created by B cells that have matured in to B &#8220;plasma&#8221; cells that are specific to the virus. B cells are &#8220;naive&#8221; and are not specific to a particular virus until they encounter the virus and begin a &#8220;maturation&#8221; process. Naive B cells do weakly recognize many viruses (and bacteria) but do not become strongly &#8220;binding&#8221; \/ &#8220;sticky&#8221; until they complete this &#8220;maturation&#8221; process. Once B &#8220;plasma&#8221; is mature, it secretes virus specific antibodies that strongly bind to the specific virus and neutralize it and\/or tag it so that phagocytes may more easily find and &#8220;eat&#8221; it.<br><br>Both infection from the coronavirus and vaccination will, in normal physiology, result in the development of virus specific B cells which include B memory cells and &#8220;B&#8221; plasma cells which develop when a &#8220;naive&#8221; B cell becomes activated (essentially though a random encounter with the virus &#8211; usually within the lymph node), undergoes a &#8220;maturing&#8221; class shift, becomes &#8220;plasma&#8221; and produces virus specific antibodies. Similarly naive T cells become activated and become specific to the virus. Together, the plasma, and antibodies produced by the plasma, and the T cells offer a defense against the virus. Over time, the plasma cells &#8220;die&#8221; (apoptosis), and thus stop secreting antibodies. Antibodies also are eliminated over time \/ breakdown usually before 20 days or so, but remaining B plasma and LLPC&#8217;s continue to secrete &#8220;fresh&#8221; antibodies. There&#8217;s some &#8220;magic&#8221; not fully understood that causes Bmem and Tmem to avoid apoptosis and\/or result in some &#8220;homeostatic maintenance&#8221; function that keeps them around for a very long time &#8211; lifelong level in many cases.<br><br>When Bmem that is specific the the virus re-encounters the virus (potentially much later &#8211; re-exposure), they divide into more Bmem and plasma and the new plasma secretes antibodies. This is kinda neat in that we aren&#8217;t clogged with antibodies to everything we&#8217;ve encountered forever, but can generate them again when re-exposed. And perhaps it should be mentioned that the plasma has class-shifted into various types that create different antibody isotypes including IgA and IgG. A semi-mature plasma cell version that usually exists significantly during the initial primary infection presents\/secretes IgM. That&#8217;s the first thing that a naive B cell exposed to a virus produces as it begins to mature and become specific, but it eventually continues it&#8217;s class shift into an IgA, IgG or one of the other isotype secreting plasma cells. There are more nuances to this &#8211; please research it further in the links below. With each re-exposure, and generally over the course of primary infection, encounters with the virus tends to lengthen and strengthen immunity. It does this by increasing the specificity \/ binding-affinity \/ stickyness of the antibody paratope (that mates to a matching virus epitope) as well as increasing the population of virus specific B plasma, B mem, T helper, T killer\/cytotoxic and T mem cells and possibly some improvement in the &#8220;magic&#8221; that keeps them around for the long term (research Long Lived Plasma Cells (LLPC), bone marrow, and homeostatic maintenance). So, a vaccine, given 2x is effectively a re-exposure. Similarly, in an outbreak, someone who has recovered would likely re-encounter the virus at a later date. Interestingly, this mechanism seems to strengthen immunity during each encounter. So something that stays around or comes around often would be more likely to result in long-term immunity &#8211; very amazing system!<br><br><a data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Affinity_maturation\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Affinity_maturation\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" target=\"_blank\">From Wikipedia Affinity maturation<\/a>: &#8220;In&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Immunology\">immunology<\/a>,&nbsp;<strong>affinity maturation<\/strong>&nbsp;is the process by which&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Follicular_B_helper_T_cells\">T<sub>FH<\/sub>&nbsp;cell<\/a>-activated&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/B_cell\">B cells<\/a>&nbsp;produce&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antibodies\">antibodies<\/a>&nbsp;with increased affinity for&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antigen\">antigen<\/a>&nbsp;during the course of an immune response. With repeated exposures to the same antigen, a host will produce antibodies of successively greater&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ligand_(biochemistry)#Receptor.2Fligand_binding_affinity\">affinities<\/a>. A&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Immune_response\">secondary response<\/a>&nbsp;can elicit antibodies with several fold greater affinity than in a primary response. Affinity maturation primarily occurs on surface immunoglobulin of&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Germinal_center\">germinal center<\/a>&nbsp;B cells and as a direct result of&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Somatic_hypermutation\">somatic hypermutation<\/a>&nbsp;(SHM) and selection by&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Follicular_B_helper_T_cells\">T<sub>FH<\/sub>&nbsp;cells<\/a>.<sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Affinity_maturation#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>&#8220;<br><br>Summarizing the cellular immune components, T cells have different types such as CD4+ T helper which assist in the activation of B cells as mentioned, and CD8+ T killer which detect virally infected cells within the body and kill them so they don&#8217;t keep replicating more viruses.. Antibodies like IgM, IgG, and IgA neutralize a virus by preventing it from entering a cell and also tag the virus so that phagocytes, etc. will identify the antibody-tagged virus and &#8220;eat&#8221; it. More can be learned by researching the adaptive, innate, and complement immune system components in the articles below.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"Protection-From-Vaccines-And-Natural-Infection\"><a href=\"#Protection-From-Vaccines-And-Natural-Infection\">Protection From Vaccines And Natural Infection<\/a><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Some articles assert that vaccines provide better long-term immunity. Most vaccines (certainly mRNA) do not result in any viral infection and only activate the B\/T cells. Activation is the first step of a process that converts B\/T cells from naive to specific. Vaccines activate but do not actually result in an infection, so some make a case that the vaccine can contain a greater &#8220;load&#8221; of antigen epitopes (but not the rest of the virus) which makes a larger B\/T population; <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/covid-19-vaccine-risks\/\" target=\"_blank\"><em>however<\/em>, a vaccine dose that is not reasonably matched to an individual&#8217;s physiology can result in excessive immune response \/ adverse events<\/a>. A significant exposure to the virus typically results in B\/T\/antibody populations similar to that of vaccine; however, viral exposure is often accompanied by viral damage, sometimes severe, and sometimes a severe immune response that can be very harmful. Vaccines commonly may have mild systemic side-effects (in addition to injection site pain) which are mostly related to the immune response &#8211; not the vaccine components, and may sometimes create significant <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/covid-19-vaccine-risks\/\" target=\"_blank\">adverse events<\/a>, and extremely rarely cause ADE which is usually caught during vaccine trials and the vaccine is then not approved for use. In general a properly dosed, timed, physiology-matched, properly injected, properly manufactured and stored vaccine is often a lower risk approach to developing protective immunity than natural infection, but vaccines are not free of risk as many variables accompany injected substances. An individual having recovered normally from COVID prior to vaccine availability is likely to have substantial protective immunity that is comparable to vaccination. Re-exposure can be important to length and strength as mentioned earlier. In epidemics, that re-exposure is likely to occur within the context of normal daily activities, or could be provided by a <a data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/evidence-for-covid-19-vaccine-deferred-dose-2-boost-timing\/#More-Evidence\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/evidence-for-covid-19-vaccine-deferred-dose-2-boost-timing\/#More-Evidence\" target=\"_blank\">vaccine booster many months later<\/a>.<br><br><strong><em>So which provides better long-term protection, vaccine or recovery from natural infection?<\/em><\/strong> While mRNA and other vaccines may create a very diverse polyclonal antibody response, encountering the virus often results in more diverse immune response because the mRNA usually does not create proteins for all aspects of the virus to include all of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coronavirus_membrane_protein\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">S\/RBD, M, E, and N proteins<\/a>. Most mRNA vaccines are designed to create a currently-thought best set of proteins to stimulate immune response. For example, the Moderna and Pfizer vaccines approved in December 2020 <a data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.biorxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2021.04.15.440089v4.full\" href=\"https:\/\/www.biorxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2021.04.15.440089v4.full\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">encode the entire spike that includes the highly important S\/RBD proteins. These mRNA vaccines do not encode the Membrane, Envelope, or Nucleocapsid proteins and thus antibodies to those proteins are not developed<\/a>. In fact, testing for E and N antibodies can reveal whether a natural infection has occurred vs the S antibodies that accompany both natural infection and vaccine responses. With antigen level and all other things being equal, the RBD <strong><em>neutralizing effectiveness<\/em><\/strong> would likely be equal between natural infection and vaccine response. However, all other things being equal, the natural infection response would tend to be more protective because the more diverse immune response with M, E, and N antibodies would be more likely to <em><strong>&#8220;tag&#8221; the virus for <a data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phagocytosis\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phagocytosis\" target=\"_blank\">phagocytosis<\/a><\/strong><\/em> and other <a data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Complement_system\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Complement_system\" target=\"_blank\">complement immune response<\/a> in addition to the RBD neutralizing antibodies shared by both natural infection and vaccination.<br><br>If the antigen level profile over time was held &#8220;theoretically&#8221; identical between vaccine and natural infection, natural infection would have a more diverse and thus more protective result. For natural infections where more antigen developed during exponential replication before an adaptive immune response scales, relative to the vaccine case, it is likely that a stronger immune response and better protection would develop as a result of natural infection. In the case of a natural infection exposure with lower antigen levels than that provided by vaccine, the greater natural infection immune response diversity would be offset by a lower overall level of antigen providing activation of adaptive immune response, and would likely result in lower protection than the vaccine response.<br><br>Said another way, it is likely that asymptomatic or lightly symptomatic natural infections that have symptoms more mild than the typical 1 day dose 2 side effects of myalgia, fatigue, headache, chills\/fever, etc., will result in lower protection than the vaccine. Natural infections with greater symptoms than the dose 2 side-effects are likely to have stronger protection than the vaccine. And, with all of this, there is also some bias in favor of natural infection due to the more diverse immune response. This will not always be the individual case, but over a broad population, this correlation would likely exist.<br><br>Further, there is some evidence that the N antibodies that result from natural infection, but not S\/RBD targeting vaccines, help reduce severe outcomes from SARS-CoV-2 infection \/ exposure. A study stated <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41467-021-23036-9\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">&#8220;Our work indicates that human N-targeting mAbs from COVID-19 convalescents play essential roles in inhibition of complement hyperactivation.&#8221; and &#8220;these data suggest that hyperactive complement predispose individuals to adverse outcomes associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection.&#8221;<\/a><br><br><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.biorxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2021.04.15.440089v4.full\" target=\"_blank\">Some articles claim immune response from vaccines is better than natural infection response<\/a>. Again, it likely depends on infection severity and other parameters vs the &#8220;endgame&#8221; of vaccination adjuvant behavior that can leave a temporary spike in antibodies but not necessarily an overall stronger \/ longer immune response, but possibly so. There are many nuances and complexities. Epidemiological data appears to show <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.israelnationalnews.com\/News\/News.aspx\/309762\" target=\"_blank\">Israelis who were vaccinated were 6.72 times more likely to get infected after the shot than after natural infection<\/a>. Data is mixed. People who have recovered from natural infection need to <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/covid-19-vaccine-risks\/\" target=\"_blank\">weigh benefits vs risk of a vaccine booster based on their specific physiology and risk tolerance<\/a>. <strong>An Israeli study released in August 2021 stated <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2021.08.24.21262415v1.full-text\" target=\"_blank\">SARS-CoV-2 na\u00efve <em>(people who never had COVID)<\/em> vaccinees had a 5.96-fold increased risk for breakthrough infection and a 7.13-fold increased risk for symptomatic disease. SARS-CoV-2-na\u00efve vaccinees were also at a greater risk for COVID-19-related-hospitalizations compared to those that were previously infected<\/a>, suggesting that natural infection, across a population, affords better protection than vaccine. <em>The finding in the Israeli epidemiological study is consistent with what would be expected given immunological understandings.<\/em><\/strong>. Given the typical symptoms that follow a personally observed and\/or clinically diagnosed mild infection, most asymptomatic infections, which may result in less protection than vaccine, are typically not observed \/ diagnosed and therefore the individual is unlikely to make a claim of natural infection, which further strengthens the case that observed \/ diagnosed natural infections would most often lead to better protection than the vaccine.<br><br>A <a href=\"https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2021.06.01.21258176v3\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">study of 52238 employees in the Cleveland Clinic Health System stated<\/a> that &#8220;<strong><em>COVID-19 did not occur in anyone over the five months of the study among 2579 individuals previously infected with COVID-19, including 1359 who did not take the vaccine.<\/em><\/strong>&#8221; and concluded that <strong>&#8220;<\/strong><em><strong>Individuals who have had SARS-CoV-2 infection are unlikely to benefit from COVID-19 vaccination, and vaccines can be safely prioritized to those who have not been infected before.<\/strong><\/em>&#8220;<br><br>Another study showed <a href=\"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jid\/advance-article\/doi\/10.1093\/infdis\/jiab542\/6406613\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">SARS-CoV-2 infection induces greater T-cell responses compared to vaccination in solid organ transplant recipients<\/a>.<br><br>Interestingly, vaccine antigen level vs time profiles are considerably different than natural infection. A vaccination provides a relatively fixed amount of antigen that then disperses into circulation over time and diminishes; all of this being modified by adjuvant that is within the vaccine dose. Natural infection antigen level vs time profiles tend to start very small, typically well below activation levels, and grow exponentially until the adaptive immune response becomes activated. <a data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/covid-19-staying-healthy\/#Exercise-Lowers-Risk\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/covid-19-staying-healthy\/#Exercise-Lowers-Risk\" target=\"_blank\">With normal amounts of physical activity, which helps the antigen reach lymph nodes<\/a> where activation of adaptive immune response is most rapid, the adaptive immune response activates, halts, and reverses the exponential growth. The interplay of these different antigen level vs time profiles for vaccine and natural infection are of great intrigue as the vaccine tends to start large and decrease over time, while natural infection starts well below activation thresholds and often rapidly grows to activation threshold levels. Innate immune response tends to slow natural infections; and intelligent behavior (such as using <a data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/covid-19-safety-information-ideas\/#Surface-Transmission,-Temperature,-Humidity,-And-Inactivation\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/covid-19-safety-information-ideas\/#Surface-Transmission,-Temperature,-Humidity,-And-Inactivation\" target=\"_blank\">viral inactivation<\/a> substances such as mouthwash, toothpaste, essential oils \/ breath-mints, zinc, small amounts of ethyl alcohol, etc.), can slow the exponential growth such that activation occurs before exponential growth of antigen becomes large. Mints and <a data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10787-020-00744-0\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10787-020-00744-0\" target=\"_blank\">essential oils<\/a> have been recognized as <a data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5694587\/\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5694587\/\" target=\"_blank\">helpful for many centuries<\/a>, and many modern mouthwashes are now essential oil rather than alcohol based. It could be argued that for many non-life-threatening viruses, intelligent behavior and natural immune response is superior to a relatively fixed vaccine dose immune response.  The fixed amount vaccine dose may be insufficient to establish a strong immune response in some individuals or may be too large and create an adverse event in other individuals. Natural infection and the viral replication growth tends to result in &#8220;finding&#8221; the individual&#8217;s immune response activation threshold such that the immune response results in stronger future protection; although that experience is generally unpleasant, or worse. Vaccine priming at low doses can be quite helpful for mitigating the unpleasant effects of a future infection, unless the vaccine dose is so large for the individual that it results in an adverse event. <a data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC8023785\/\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC8023785\/\" target=\"_blank\">Research<\/a> continues on <a data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Immunologic_adjuvant\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Immunologic_adjuvant\" target=\"_blank\">adjuvant<\/a> behavior in an attempt to optimize vaccine antigen level vs time profiles, etc.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"The-Risk-Of-Over-Boosting-\/-Vaccination\"><a href=\"#The-Risk-Of-Over-Boosting-\/-Vaccination\">The Risk Of Over-Boosting \/ Vaccination<\/a><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Keeping in mind homeostatic processes at work within the body that maintain appropriate levels of immature naive B\/T cells, mature, virus-specific, B memory cells, T cells, LLPC&#8217;s and the entire immune complement, it is possible to create imbalance through excessive boosting of immune response to a specific virus. Creating a narrower set of B \/ T \/ antibody &#8220;species&#8221; that strongly bind to one specific virus can &#8220;push out&#8221; a more diverse set of polyclones that provide broader protection against a wider set of viruses. Conceivably, it could mute vaccine induced immune responses to other, potentially more pathologic viruses, and reduce protection against those pathogens, such as measles. And for a period of time near the boosting, it could reduce availability of naive B cells which are important for developing immune responses to previously unencountered viral \/ bacterial exposures. Over-boosting could also result in allergic \/ adverse events through over-sensitization that could span a set of pathogens \/ substances beyond that of the target virus. It could result in aberrant behavior in the delicate B\/T cell activation process and enable development of larger auto-antibody populations and associated auto-immune disease. Certainly the notion of 3 and 4 vaccinations within a 1 year time period for general population distribution is not well tested. It may not even be prudent for the immuno-compromised \/ geriatric at strong dosages. The covid-era passion for prime vaccination and boosting appears to be driven by factors that do not include a thorough consideration of benefit vs. risk across a broad perspective and timespan.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"Bound-Antibodies-And-Immunoassay-Uncertainty\"><a href=\"#Bound-Antibodies-And-Immunoassay-Uncertainty\">Bound Antibodies And Immunoassay Uncertainty<\/a><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Regarding measurement of antibodies, it is important to note that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ELISA#Types\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">immunoassay techniques<\/a> can result in erroneous measurements. Immunoassays that measure antibodies by binding a &#8220;tag&#8221; or &#8220;label&#8221; to the antibodies (and then looking for a fluorescent tag&#8217;s light emission), show lower counts when the antibodies are bound to virus (which is how antibodies neutralize the virus). Early in an infection, there tends to be much more virus present than antibodies, as the antibody secretion by B cells ramps up. Statistically speaking, this means that many of the antibodies are bound to virus when the population of virus is much larger than the population of antibodies. This results in the immunoassay showing that there are many fewer antibodies present than actual when that virus \/ antibody population mismatch is large. Only when they become more even are there enough free &#8220;unbound&#8221; antibodies such that they are measured. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC1904417\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Substances that alter the measurable concentration of the analyte or alter antibody binding can potentially result in immunoassay interference<\/a>. The immunoassay is measuring the amount of &#8220;unbound&#8221; antibodies, so this is important to keep in mind as it creates the appearance that antibodies are developing later in time than they really do. Early on in an infection\/vaccination, many of the antibodies are &#8220;bound&#8221; and are thus not detected because the immunoassay tag cannot bind to them as the binding area is already occupied by virus. This also helps explain why antibodies &#8220;appear&#8221; to have peak populations some time after an infection &#8220;clears&#8221;, because at that time the reverse condition occurs: there are many antibodies, but very little virus that are bound to the antibodies, since the virus has been eradicated from the body. The reality is that many antibodies exist and probably genuinely peak when there is a closer match of virus \/ antibody populations (actually several antibodies can bind to the multiple spikes \/ epitopes on a single virus, so it&#8217;s more of when the number of total viral spikes and antibodies match). There are many complexities, but this helps one understand some important concepts of antibody measurement and errors that occur during that measurement. It also helps one understand the &#8220;war&#8221; as antibodies bind to the virus and neutralize the virus by preventing the spike from attaching to a cell simply by occupying the spike that is trying to attach to the cell.<br><br>Regarding vaccine dose timing, the 2nd dose antigens have a probability of binding to any antibody titer remaining from the dose 1 immune response, preventing the antigen from interacting with B \/ T cells which is necessary to improve <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antibody#Somatic_hypermutation_and_affinity_maturation\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">binding affinity<\/a> (immunity). An appropriate delay allows antibody response to wane from it&#8217;s peak and enables a higher probability of B \/ T \/ antigen re-activation and further SHM responses within germinal centers. Existing B \/ T mem, antibodies, etc. remain protective during the period between doses.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"Sterilizing-Immunity\"><a href=\"#Sterilizing-Immunity\">Sterilizing Immunity<\/a><\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>It can also be shown from general immunological principles that a level of sterilizing immunity generally arises when IgA, CD8+ T cytotoxic &#8220;killer&#8221; cells, and IgG are present (see: <a href=\"https:\/\/pipelinereview.com\/index.php\/2020090875801\/Vaccines\/Vaxarts-Oral-COVID-19-Vaccine-Candidate-Induces-Potent-Systemic-and-Mucosal-Immune-Responses-in-Preclinical-Studies.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">ref1<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/stm.sciencemag.org\/content\/13\/577\/eabf1555\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">ref2<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/srep32973\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">ref3<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3760833\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">ref4<\/a>, and above\/below). Regarding re-infections, if IgA\/IgG antibody titer and T killer cell population has diminished after a primary encounter many months \/ years ago, a re-exposure that is successful at entering some cells will technically result in a re-infection. But the adaptive immune arsenal that is remaining will provide &#8220;protective immunity&#8221; and rapidly halt the re-infection which will often be short lived and most likely asymptomatic or result in minor symptoms; and shedding is often minimal to none; all of this depending on the armies on each side, so to speak. Since virus specific B \/ T mem already exist during a reinfection, the process of rebuilding a new population of plasma cells and antibodies is very fast (hours to a day or so, <a href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/covid-19-staying-healthy\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">somewhat depending upon exercise leve<\/a>l, etc). If a primary immune response has occurred within the last several months (from vaccination or natural infection recovery), it is likely that plasma, IgA, IgG, and Tc will be present in quantities that provide instantaneous protection. Since IgA is typically found in the mucosal areas, saliva, gut, etc., having lots of IgA, and T killers, can result in a level of &#8220;sterilizing immunity&#8221;, such that any viral load has no ability to create an infection substantial enough to result in any significant viral replication \/ <a href=\"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ofid\/advance-article\/doi\/10.1093\/ofid\/ofab259\/6278371\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">shedding<\/a>. Being continually re-exposed can keep IgA and T killers nicely populated so that the individual kills the virus rapidly and provides little threat to others (how smart is that?). In fact, they potentially become better than a &#8220;surface&#8221; as viruses can remain viable on some surfaces like stainless steel, glass, and plastic for quite a long time but the IgA would neutralize them by binding to the epitope and blocking \/ preventing operation of the spike protein in it&#8217;s attempt to bind to a cell, so even if they somehow sneezed or breathed the encountered virus back out, if it was in the nose long enough to encounter IgA and become neutralized, it would leave neutralized. An individual with strong IgA \/ mucousal antibody presence not only doesn&#8217;t replicate virus, but can act as an &#8220;air filter&#8221; that removes and\/or inactivates virus that is present in the environment, similarly to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wound_licking\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">dog instinctively (or perhaps knowingly) licking wounds<\/a>. Also see <a href=\"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/10454411950060020501\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Biochemical Composition of Human Saliva in Relation To Other Mucosal Fluids (1995)<\/a>. Is it possible that a dog&#8217;s instinct is keener than that of some COVID-19 policy makers?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"Polyclonal-Immune-Response\"><a href=\"#Polyclonal-Immune-Response\">Polyclonal Immune Response<\/a><\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>A virus has many different epitopes on it&#8217;s spike. During immune response, many different antibodies develop to match-with and bind-to these different viral epitopes on the spike. Thus, the immune response creates polyclonal antibodies that work together to neutralize the virus. The more viral epitopes that become bound with matching antibody paratopes, the better neutralized and tagged the virus becomes. Some virus epitopes, for example the ones on the virus&#8217;s spike Receptor Binding Domain (RBD) tend to be very important to infecting a cell, and &#8220;neutralizing&#8221; antibodies that bind to those epitopes tend to be most effective at preventing infection by halting the cell from absorbing the virus, essentially by &#8220;capping&#8221; that area of the virus. The majority of the epitopes on the virus are not part of the cell infection mechanism, but non-neutralizing antibodies which bind to these epitopes will &#8220;tag&#8221; the virus and make it more attractive to phagocytes which will then &#8220;eat&#8221; the virus. The team of diverse polyclonal antibodies all work together to reduce the chance of the virus being able to infect a cell as they &#8220;tackle&#8221; the virus from every &#8220;angle&#8221; (neutralize and\/or tag it via binding to multiple epitopes). Perhaps obviously, when more antibody polyclones become bound to the various virus epitopes, the greater the likelihood that it will be neutralized, unsuccessful at invading a cell, and become &#8220;eaten&#8221; by phagocytes, etc. (phagocytosis).<br><br>A variant virus will have some epitopes that are identical to the earlier virus that formed the earlier immune response and some epitopes that are different. The epitopes that are identical (or nearly so) can bind to existing antibodies; and they can also activate existing B mem and this usually happens within hours. Epitopes that are different will cause new B mem and antibodies to develop in a period of several days. In the case where the pre-existing clonal types rapidly halt virus progression, it is less likely that new clonal types will develop &#8211; a concept known as &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Original_antigenic_sin\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">original antigenic sin<\/a>&#8220;. When the variant becomes different enough (or a larger initial exposure) such that it cannot be rapidly halted with the original clonal types, new clonal types will develop alongside a likely more symptomatic illness.<br><br>As a virus mutates, the strength of antibody binding, and number of antibody monoclones\/&#8221;polyclonal types&#8221; that bind, can diminish, usually a little more with each mutation of the various viral epitopes. <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK2396\/\" target=\"_blank\">&#8220;Nearly the entire surface of an antigen presents many overlapping domains that antibodies can discriminate as distinct epitopes&#8221;<\/a>. After many mutations (usually years later), several of the various polyclonal antibodies may be of little help; that said, several of the polyclonal antibodies will remain effective at neutralization.<br><br>During encounter of a variant virus, the epitopes in common with the original virus will be rapidly bound by existing antibodies and more of those same antibodies will be rapidly secreted by B plasma cells that rapidly proliferate when B mem cells are activated within hours of the re-encounter. This will either rapidly halt the reinfection or significantly slow it depending upon how much and how many of the variant virus epitopes mutated, etc. Even slowing the new infection helps to thwart viral damage while the new immune response adapts to the variant. Slowing the variant caused infection can dramatically reduce the otherwise rapid exponential viral growth that occurs in a person that is completely naive to the virus.<br><br>Encountering variants \/ mutations over the years causes development of more specific B mem and antibodies that bind to the viral epitopes that have mutated. So, the older B mem encodes antibody paratopes that bind to the &#8220;old&#8221; epitopes and new B mem becomes specific to the newer mutated epitopes. A gap where mutations are missed (no exposure) or a large sudden mutation can make older B mem less protective. <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC2677258\/\" target=\"_blank\">Encountering mutations along the way will likely result in asymptomatic infection<\/a> or minor illness <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3839062\/\" target=\"_blank\">while refining the binding affinity to the newer mutations, creating future protection.<\/a> Thus, serious infections from a recent variant are quite rare.<br><br>&#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK26884\/\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Each B cell produces a single species of antibody<\/a>, each with a unique&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/n\/mboc4\/A4754\/def-item\/A4830\/\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" target=\"_blank\">antigen<\/a>&#8211;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/n\/mboc4\/A4754\/def-item\/A4882\/\">binding site<\/a>. When a na\u00efve or memory B cell is activated by antigen (with the aid of a&nbsp;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/n\/mboc4\/A4754\/def-item\/A5269\/\" target=\"_blank\">helper T cell<\/a>), it proliferates and differentiates into an antibody-secreting&nbsp;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/n\/mboc4\/A4754\/def-item\/A5113\/\" target=\"_blank\">effector cell<\/a>. Such cells make and secrete large amounts of soluble (rather than&nbsp;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/n\/mboc4\/A4754\/def-item\/A5438\/\" target=\"_blank\">membrane<\/a>-bound) antibody, which has the same unique antigen-binding site as the cell-surface antibody that served earlier as the antigen&nbsp;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/n\/mboc4\/A4754\/def-item\/A5720\/\" target=\"_blank\">receptor<\/a>&nbsp;(<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK26884\/figure\/A4448\/?report=objectonly\" target=\"_blank\">Figure 24-17<\/a>). Effector B cells can begin secreting antibody while they are still small lymphocytes, but the end stage of their maturation pathway is a large&nbsp;<em>plasma cell<\/em>&nbsp;(see&nbsp;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/n\/mboc4\/A4422\/figure\/A4430\/?report=objectonly\" target=\"_blank\">Figure 24-7B<\/a>), which continuously secretes antibodies at the astonishing rate of about 2000 molecules per second. Plasma cells seem to have committed so much of their&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/n\/mboc4\/A4754\/def-item\/A5688\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">protein<\/a>-synthesizing machinery to making antibody that they are incapable of further growth and division. Although many die after several days, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41586-021-03647-4\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">some survive in the bone marrow for months or years<\/a> and continue to secrete antibodies into the blood.&#8221;<br><br>How many different clone types are created in response to the virus or vaccines based on the spike? <a data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polyclonal_B_cell_response#Single_antigen_contains_multiple_overlapping_epitopes\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polyclonal_B_cell_response#Single_antigen_contains_multiple_overlapping_epitopes\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">&#8220;A single antigen can be thought of as a sequence of multiple overlapping epitopes. Many unique B cell clones may be able to bind to the individual epitopes. This imparts even greater multiplicity to the overall response&#8221;<\/a>. One study, looking only at the just the RBD portion of the spike found &#8220;<a data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41586-020-2380-z\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41586-020-2380-z\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">the isolation and characterization of <strong><em>206 RBD-specific monoclonal antibodies<\/em><\/strong> derived from single B cells from 8 individuals infected with SARS-CoV-2<\/a>&#8220;. So there are probably many more they didn&#8217;t isolate and a large number of additional monoclones that bind to the numerous epitopes along the entire spike. Also see &#8220;<a data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.cell.com\/cell-host-microbe\/fulltext\/S1931-3128(20)30513-8\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cell.com\/cell-host-microbe\/fulltext\/S1931-3128(20)30513-8\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Mining the Antibody Repertoire for Solutions to SARS-CoV-2<\/a>&#8220;. Additionally, there is &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/twitter.com\/search?q=%40MonicaGandhi9%20tcells%20epitopes&amp;src=typed_query\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">evidence from AZ trial that <strong><em>CD4\/CD8 cells respond to 87 epitopes<\/em><\/strong><\/a>&#8220;. Another study <a href=\"https:\/\/www.science.org\/doi\/10.1126\/scitranslmed.abj7125\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong><em>isolated 1737 monoclonal antibodies<\/em><\/strong> (mAbs) from a SARS-CoV convalescent patient 17 years following infection and from a SARS-CoV-2 convalescent patient 36 days post infection and found 50 cross-reactive antibodies that bound to SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, and other human and animal coronavirus antigens<\/a>. Natural infection often results in over 1000 unique antibody \/ virus-specific-B-cell &#8220;species&#8221;. Every antigen, H1N1, SARS-CoV-2, etc., elicits polyclonal immune response. Cross-reactivity results when an individual B\/antibody species binds to multiple viruses &amp; either tags or neutralizes them. Immunity to hundreds of viruses improves cross-immunity. <a href=\"https:\/\/twitter.com\/ReallycorrectC\/status\/1456871395145633796\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">While using NPI&#8217;s such as masks, physical distance, etc. reduces potential for infection, this also increases the gap in adaptive immune response capability due to the lower likelihood of polyclonal cross-immunity<\/a>. How isolation measures may impact a population decades later is not well understood; however, the implications of immune response gaps are somewhat obvious.<br><br>&#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5613280\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Transition of B cells to plasma cells is associated with loss of BCR expression. In the absence of opposing BCR signaling, Fc\u03b3RIIb engagement by IgG immune complexes leads to plasma cell apoptosis; this negative feedback mechanism regulates plasma cell survival to prevent uncontrolled IgG production.<\/a>&#8220;<br><br><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC2677258\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">For infectious diseases where immunization can offer lifelong protection, a variety of simple models can be used to explain the utility of vaccination as a control method. However, for many diseases, immunity wanes over time [years and decades] and is subsequently enhanced (boosted) by asymptomatic encounters with the infection.<\/a><br><br>Increasing the population of vaccinated \/ natural-infection-recovered individuals will <a href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/evidence-for-covid-19-vaccine-deferred-dose-2-boost-timing\/#Mutating-Viral-Escape\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">reduce the potential for variants to occur by reducing the total number of viral replications<\/a>. Vaccine resistance is rare <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5378080\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">due to the diverse polyclonal immune response<\/a>. That said, it is likely that variants with significant mutations will produce asymptomatic or minor infection as indicated above. One study showed <a href=\"https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2021.05.28.21258025v1\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">SARS-CoV-2 specific memory B-cells from individuals with diverse disease severities recognize SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern<\/a>.<br><br><a href=\"https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2021.03.16.21253534v1\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">The course of the SARS-COV-2 pandemic in the UK seems highly predicted by an earlier model based on the lockdown stringency, humidity and temperature and <strong><em>unaltered by the emergence of a newer viral genotype<\/em><\/strong>.<\/a> Vincent Racaniello, a professor of microbiology and immunology at the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia University stated: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.thestreet.com\/latest-news\/there-are-no-covid-super-strains-yet-says-virologist-vincent-racaniello\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">there&#8217;s no evidence so far of a&nbsp;<em>variant<\/em>&nbsp;that can meaningfully evade vaccines, though there are several variants out there.<\/a>&nbsp;Monica Gandhi, MD MPH &#8211; infectious diseases and HIV doctor at UCSF, states: &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/threadreaderapp.com\/thread\/1368679095010164736.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Let&#8217;s remember from papers tweeted before, immunity from natural infection &amp; vaccinations across viruses lasts long&#8221;<\/a>.<br><br>Most variants such as B.1.117 and P1 that are frequently touted as being more transmissive <a href=\"https:\/\/www.thelancet.com\/journals\/lancet\/article\/PIIS0140-6736(21)00183-5\/fulltext\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">became prevalent during periods of opening and\/or holidays<\/a>, and it is quite possible that observed increases of spread were due to <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/news\/2020\/12\/mutant-coronavirus-united-kingdom-sets-alarms-its-importance-remains-unclear\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">human behavior<\/a> such as increased indoor activity which likely leads to greater R0 and increased initial exposure viral load encountered indoors. The one variant, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41586-021-03471-w\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">B.1.351, that seems to have some significant level of in-vitro escape in some cases<\/a>, appears unlikely to strongly escape in-vivo adaptive immune protection for the reasons mentioned above. Blood \/ plasma samples mixed with the virus outside the body understandably have much weaker neutralizing activity than virus in a live body with lymph nodes and a fully responding immune system, so the studies that are based on neutralization assays are not necessarily reflective of actual in-vivo human responses that are quite robust as discussed above. Real world data regarding B.1.351 escaping immune response has not been convincing to date.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"Co-circulating-Variants-And-Sequencing-Bias\"><a href=\"#Co-circulating-Variants-And-Sequencing-Bias\">Co-circulating Variants And Sequencing Bias<\/a><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>As variants develop, it becomes more likely that a diverse set of variants could co-infect a population. It becomes interesting to better understand how PCR amplification and genetic sequencing methods could introduce biases into the determination of the variants identified by sequencing when an individual is co-infected and a sample is submitted for sequencing. <a href=\"https:\/\/genomebiology.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/gb-2011-12-2-r18\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">New genome sequencing technologies [1\u20133, <\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/genomebiology.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/gb-2011-12-2-r18\">15<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/genomebiology.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/gb-2011-12-2-r18\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">\u201317] no longer rely on cloning in a microbial host. Instead of ligating DNA fragments to cloning vectors, the three major platforms currently on the market (454, Illumina and SOLiD) involve ligation of DNA fragments to special adapters for clonal amplification <em>in vitro<\/em> rather than <em>in vivo<\/em>. Due to the massively parallel nature of the process, standardized reaction conditions must be applied to amplify and sequence complex libraries of fragments that comprise a wide spectrum of sequence compositions. All three platforms display systematic biases and unevenness as the observed coverage distributions are significantly wider than the Poisson distribution expected from unbiased, random sampling.<\/a> Having a better understanding of how amplification and sequencing methods create variant identification bias when a population genuinely has multiple circulating variants is of some interest. For example <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-021-83642-x\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">unlike targeted qRT-PCR assays, virome capture sequencing can be used to determine the genome sequences of coinfecting viruses, informing investigations of virus transmission and evolution.   &#8230;  Although the amplicon approach can also construct libraries within a similar timeframe, in our experience of using two published amplicon WGS methods, generating amplicons often took longer than anticipated due to certain parts of the genome amplifying poorly, requiring continuous optimization.<\/a> Understanding and correcting for any bias associated with specific co-infection variants would be important to assuring that sequencing results most closely match the underlying reality as all measurement processes are subject to uncertainties. A study provided laboratory data showing how <a href=\"https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2021.06.01.21258181v1\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">mutations disrupted sequencing of P.1 lineage specimens during a recent outbreak in British Columbia, Canada, and we also demonstrate how we modified the Freed et al. protocol to restore performance.<\/a><br><br>Popular reporting about the B.1.617.2 (Delta) variant commonly states this variant is replicating more rapidly and displacing other variants, but since it is supposedly displacing other variants, this is extremely likely to be occurring in an environment that has multiple variants co-circulating and likely that many co-infections develop as a result. It is not clear how current genetic sequencing of infection samples resolves co-infections from multiple variants to support the popular press claims. In fact, one March 2021 Cell Press article states that &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.cell.com\/med\/fulltext\/S2666-6340(21)00117-3\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">to date, no method can rapidly diagnose multiple viral infections and determine variants in a high-throughput manner<\/a>&#8220;. While there are many assertions that selection of variants is occurring biologically within a population where multiple variants are co-circulating, the question arises regarding whether that selection is genuinely from the population, or whether the &#8220;appearance of selection&#8221; is an artefact of an amplification and sequencing process bias when applied to a sample from a co-infected individual. In other words, if a person is co-infected by 2 or more variants, what&#8217;s the sequencing result? Are all variants in the sample reported? Just some? Only one? Which &#8220;wins&#8221;? Does sequencing bias errantly determine the &#8220;winner&#8221; rather than accurately reporting proportion of variants in the sample?<br><br>In review, antibodies are secreted by B &#8220;plasma&#8221; cells. Most immunologists just call them plasma cells or PC. It&#8217;s helpful to trace it back to it&#8217;s roots as naive B cells which are created in the bone marrow regions. In fact, T cells are also built from premature versions of B cells and they mature in the Thymus. T cells don&#8217;t secrete antibodies. They help activate B cells and also form T killers mentioned above. And, there are on the order of 10,000 (or maybe a few orders of magnitude more) &#8220;random&#8221; types of naive B cells, each being a little more or less likely to bind with different types of viruses and bacteria. Of those &#8220;10,000&#8221;, only a few are likely to recognize and loosely bind with any given virus. Those few are the ones that mature into B plasma when they encounter the virus and become activated as mentioned above, and so on.<br><br>The reality can be significantly different than stated here depending on the precision desired. Additional resources below and elsewhere can help clarify, correct, and extend this tutorial information.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Seroconversion\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Seroconversion - Wikipedia\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/9\/99\/Question_book-new.svg\/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Seroconversion &#8211; Wikipedia<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">In immunology, seroconversion is the time period during which a specific antibody develops and becomes detectable in the blood. After seroconversion has occurred, the antibodies can be detected in blood tests for the disease. During an infection or immunization, antigens enter the blood, and the imm\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/jamanetwork.com\/journals\/jama\/fullarticle\/2770758\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"COVID-19 and the Path to Immunity\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cdn.jamanetwork.com\/ama\/content_public\/journal\/jama\/0\/jvp200186f1_1599762189.22467.png?Expires=2147483647&amp;Signature=JkM1DhfmKqzmgLQM3AVXETuacXsgMiiSfdKI6Luuyh5YtWqmBEoClODIt80bZlpQQOOB0af2GlTnh3DDS-etXHGcE3nW8EQGeGdVn1m~dKEcbFobgeddZSU2-4cVnC19EHYUqpgw54Mdav3c5l8Tgq2doAJohNVPEGn-orq8oX24GnRq-ZX9f4q1O8Z0cqYalp1N77BEVYfJaGy4faSs1KFME8YjSZUqnRYeMzpSjESc5J7OB5leRmXSh3a3k6AJHQ1xlzFIjnZfqdh2S7aC15YK609C8CdlwMhhmn-4GDWN7pL-WnhfWUjoomWmYDaPiQJC-W4dRJHlWLlZ9QPlhw__&amp;Key-Pair-Id=APKAIE5G5CRDK6RD3PGA\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">COVID-19 and the Path to Immunity<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">This Viewpoint reviews what is known about acute and long-term B-cell, antibody, and T-cell responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection and explains how each are implicated in vaccine candidates likely to be effective and durably protective again COVID-19.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p>&#8220;This rapid and dramatic antibody response may stop the infection before it can even become established, and the individual may not realize they had been exposed.&#8221;<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/biology\/chapter\/23-2-adaptive-immune-response\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"23.2.\u00a0Adaptive Immune Response \u2013 Concepts of Biology \u2013 1st Canadian Edition\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/biology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/96\/2015\/08\/Figure_42_02_01.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">23.2.\u00a0Adaptive Immune Response \u2013 Concepts of Biology \u2013 1st Canadian Edition<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Unit 4: Animal Structure and Function<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.sciencemag.org\/pipeline\/archives\/2020\/07\/15\/new-data-on-t-cells-and-the-coronavirus?fbclid=IwAR3jV9G5AfsIgyv6JR0rvhwytjLrEs_7Jut5ryIhGDbpxFC54GVUxPqEE58\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"New Data on T Cells and the Coronavirus\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/blogs.sciencemag.org\/pipeline\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2015\/06\/logo-in-the-pipeline.svg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">New Data on T Cells and the Coronavirus<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Well, I was writing just the other day about what we don\u2019t know about the T-cell response to coronavirus infection, and as of today we know quite a bit more. And from what I can see, we have encouraging news, mixed with some things that we\u2019re going to need to keep an eye on. Here\u2019s a post from Ma<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p>&#8220;Repeat exposure has the effect of refining IgG affinity of the antibodies and boosting the number of memory cells.&#8221; -MD, EpGrp<br><br>&#8220;Antibodies are made by B cells; T cells can be helpers (Th) or cytotoxic (Tc) but don&#8217;t make antibodies. Each B cell has a unique receptor for a single epitope. When B cells encounter antigen the ones with receptors that bind with a certain affinity&nbsp;begin to proliferate and mature, first secreting IgM then undergoing a class shift and maturation to plasma cells that secrete IgG and IgA depending on the cytokine milieu and other factors. Since this is a population effect the final antibody titre will depend on the numbers and activity of the plasma cells. During maturation some cells become Bmem but the antibody titre probably doesn&#8217;t depend on those; they are held in reserve in case of repeat exposure to the antigen.&#8221;  -SW, EpGrp<br><br>&#8220;This essentially answers the question that <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/10229109\/\" target=\"_blank\">Bmem and IgG antibody titer are not&nbsp;necessarily correlated<\/a>. And further, that the Bmem is of potentially greater importance than IgG regarding re-challenge. In fact, having IgG just makes the response to the challenge much more rapid as there is no lag while Bmem multiplies and secretes more IgM \/ IgG in response to the re-challenge. But even that latter Bmem response is still quite fast, just not as fast as having lots of IgG immediately circulating.&#8221; -DV, EpGrp<br><br>&#8220;Homeostatic maintenance of Bmem is sufficient to result in long-term population of antigen specific Bmem \/ plasma.&#8221; -DV, EpGrp<br><br>&#8220;I know hepatitis b vaccine, you can have immunity even after 30 yrs from vaccine even if low titers or non measurable titers&#8221; -FM, EpGrp<br><br>&#8220;How would our immune system look if we were churning out massive amounts of antibodies to everything we ever encountered? We\u2019d be a giant lymph node.&#8221; &#8211; DK, EpGrp<br><\/p>\n\n\n<div\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tclass=\"so-widget-sow-slider so-widget-sow-slider-default-1e7e700802c1\"\n\t\t\t\n\t\t>\t\t\t\t<div class=\"sow-slider-base\" style=\"display: none\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<ul\n\t\t\t\t\tclass=\"sow-slider-images\"\n\t\t\t\t\tdata-settings=\"{&quot;pagination&quot;:true,&quot;speed&quot;:795,&quot;timeout&quot;:8000,&quot;paused&quot;:true,&quot;pause_on_hover&quot;:true,&quot;swipe&quot;:true,&quot;nav_always_show_desktop&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;nav_always_show_mobile&quot;:true,&quot;breakpoint&quot;:&quot;780px&quot;,&quot;unmute&quot;:false,&quot;anchor&quot;:null}\"\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tdata-anchor-id=\"\"\n\t\t\t\t>\t\t<li class=\"sow-slider-image\" style=\"visibility: visible;;cursor: pointer;\" data-url=\"{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\\\/\\\/www.alamedaca.gov\\\/ALERTS-COVID-19\\\/Vaccine-Information\\\/mrna&quot;,&quot;new_window&quot;:true}\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"sow-slider-image-container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"sow-slider-image-wrapper\" style=\"\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.alamedaca.gov\/ALERTS-COVID-19\/Vaccine-Information\/mrna\"\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ttarget=\"_blank\" \t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\trel=\"noopener noreferrer\" \t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"sow-slider-image-foreground-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" class=\"sow-slider-foreground-image\" style=\"\" srcset=\"\" sizes=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/www.alamedaca.gov\/files\/assets\/public\/alameda-pio\/cartoon1.jpg?w=1024&amp;h=768\" >\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t\t\t<li class=\"sow-slider-image\" style=\"visibility: hidden;;cursor: pointer;\" data-url=\"{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\\\/\\\/www.alamedaca.gov\\\/ALERTS-COVID-19\\\/Vaccine-Information\\\/mrna&quot;,&quot;new_window&quot;:true}\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"sow-slider-image-container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"sow-slider-image-wrapper\" style=\"\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.alamedaca.gov\/ALERTS-COVID-19\/Vaccine-Information\/mrna\"\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ttarget=\"_blank\" \t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\trel=\"noopener noreferrer\" \t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"sow-slider-image-foreground-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" class=\"sow-slider-foreground-image\" style=\"\" srcset=\"\" sizes=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/www.alamedaca.gov\/files\/assets\/public\/alameda-pio\/cartoon2.jpg\" >\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t\t\t<li class=\"sow-slider-image\" style=\"visibility: hidden;;cursor: pointer;\" data-url=\"{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\\\/\\\/www.alamedaca.gov\\\/ALERTS-COVID-19\\\/Vaccine-Information\\\/mrna&quot;,&quot;new_window&quot;:true}\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"sow-slider-image-container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"sow-slider-image-wrapper\" style=\"\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.alamedaca.gov\/ALERTS-COVID-19\/Vaccine-Information\/mrna\"\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ttarget=\"_blank\" \t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\trel=\"noopener noreferrer\" \t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"sow-slider-image-foreground-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" class=\"sow-slider-foreground-image\" style=\"\" srcset=\"\" sizes=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/www.alamedaca.gov\/files\/assets\/public\/alameda-pio\/cartoon3.jpg\" >\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<\/ul>\t\t\t\t<ol class=\"sow-slider-pagination\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<li><a href=\"#\" data-goto=\"0\" aria-label=\"Display slide 1\"><\/a><\/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<li><a href=\"#\" data-goto=\"1\" aria-label=\"Display slide 2\"><\/a><\/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<li><a href=\"#\" data-goto=\"2\" aria-label=\"Display slide 3\"><\/a><\/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/ol>\n\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"sow-slide-nav sow-slide-nav-next\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"#\" data-goto=\"next\" aria-label=\"Next slide\" data-action=\"next\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<em class=\"sow-sld-icon-thick-right\"><\/em>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"sow-slide-nav sow-slide-nav-prev\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"#\" data-goto=\"previous\" aria-label=\"Previous slide\" data-action=\"prev\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<em class=\"sow-sld-icon-thick-left\"><\/em>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p>Courtesy Emily Watters, M.D. @cartoonshrink<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Immunological_memory\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Immunological memory - Wikipedia\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/static\/images\/wikimedia-button.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Immunological memory &#8211; Wikipedia<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Immunological memory is the ability of the immune system to quickly and specifically recognize an antigen that the body has previously encountered and initiate a corresponding immune response. Generally these are secondary, tertiary and other subsequent immune responses to the same antigen. Immunolo\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.virology.ws\/2009\/07\/22\/adaptive-immune-defenses-antibodies\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Adaptive immune defenses: Antibodies\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.virology.ws\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/11\/blog20.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Adaptive immune defenses: Antibodies<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">With the looming prospect of mass immunization against influenza, it\u2019s important to understand how vaccines work. To do this we must have a good understanding of adaptive immune defenses. Today we\u2019ll begin a discussion of the humoral arm of the adaptive immune response \u2013 antibodies. Antibodies are l\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Memory_B_cell\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Memory B cell - Wikipedia\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d8\/Original_antigenic_sin.svg\/1200px-Original_antigenic_sin.svg.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Memory B cell &#8211; Wikipedia<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK27142\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"B-cell activation by armed helper T cells - Immunobiology - NCBI Bookshelf\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/static.pubmed.gov\/portal\/portal3rc.fcgi\/4176521\/img\/28977\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">B-cell activation by armed helper T cells &#8211; Immunobiology &#8211; NCBI Bookshelf<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">The surface immunoglobulin that serves as the B-cell antigen receptor (BCR) has two roles in B-cell activation. First, like the antigen receptor on T cells, it transmits signals directly to the cell\u2019s interior when it binds antigen (see Section 6-1). Second, the B-cell antigen receptor delivers the \u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Memory_T_cell#Homeostatic_maintenance\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Memory T cell - Wikipedia\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/3\/3c\/T_cell_prolif.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Memory T cell &#8211; Wikipedia<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Memory T cells are a subset of T lymphocytes that might have some of the same functions as memory B cells. Their lineage is unclear.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cell.com\/immunity\/fulltext\/S1074-7613(20)30537-9?\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"T Cell Memory: Understanding COVID-19\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/marlin-prod.literatumonline.com\/cms\/asset\/e82c6626-ddf3-4369-946f-bc95c691b3a9\/gr1.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">T Cell Memory: Understanding COVID-19<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">As the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has progressed, increasing attention has focused on establishing<br \/>\nnatural and vaccine-induced immunity against this coronavirus and the disease, COVID-19,<br \/>\nthat it causes. In this Primer, we explain the fundamental features of T\u00a0cell memory<br \/>\nand their potential relevance for \u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pacificimmunology.com\/resources\/antibody-introduction\/how-are-antibodies-produced\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"How are Antibodies Produced?\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">How are Antibodies Produced?<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">How are Antibodies Produced?<br \/>\nAlthough detailed mechanics of the immune response are beyond the scope of this site, it is useful, in the context of developing a custom antibody, to have an overview of how antibodies are produced by the immune system.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/antibody\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"antibody | Definition, Structure, Function, &amp; Types\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/92\/20892-050-1F411178\/chains-structure-antibody-immunoglobulin-molecule-light-unit.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">antibody | Definition, Structure, Function, &amp; Types<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Antibody, a protective protein produced by the immune system in response to the presence of a foreign substance, called an antigen. Antibodies recognize and latch onto antigens in order to remove them from the body. Learn more about the function and structure of antibodies in this article.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK27123\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Generation of lymphocytes in bone marrow and thymus - Immunobiology - NCBI Bookshelf\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/static.pubmed.gov\/portal\/portal3rc.fcgi\/4176521\/img\/28977\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Generation of lymphocytes in bone marrow and thymus &#8211; Immunobiology &#8211; NCBI Bookshelf<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">The greater part of lymphocyte development in mammals occurs in the specialized environments of the central lymphoid organs\u2014the bone marrow (and the liver in the fetus) for B cells and the thymus for T cells. In the fetus and the juvenile, these tissues are the source of large numbers of new lymphoc\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0092867420312356\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Antigen-Specific Adaptive Immunity to SARS-CoV-2 in Acute COVID-19 and Associations with Age and Disease Severity\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/ars.els-cdn.com\/content\/image\/1-s2.0-S0092867420312356-fx1.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Antigen-Specific Adaptive Immunity to SARS-CoV-2 in Acute COVID-19 and Associations with Age and Disease Severity<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Limited knowledge is available on the relationship between antigen-specific immune responses and COVID-19 disease severity. We completed a combined ex\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6446584\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">&#8220;After puberty, the <em>thymus<\/em> starts to involute with age and <em>turns<\/em> into <em>fatty tissue<\/em>&#8220;<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6446584\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"THE ROLE OF THE THYMUS IN THE IMMUNE RESPONSE\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/corehtml\/pmc\/pmcgifs\/pmc-logo-share.png?_=0\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">THE ROLE OF THE THYMUS IN THE IMMUNE RESPONSE<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">THE THYMUS IS A PRIMARY LYMPHOID ORGAN ESSENTIAL FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF T LYMPHOCYTES WHICH ORCHESTRATE ADAPTIVE IMMUNE RESPONSES. T CELL DEVELOPMENT IN THE THYMUS IS SPATIALLY REGUALTED; KEY CHECKPOINTS IN T CELL MATURATION AND SELECTION OCCUR IN CORTICAL &#8230;<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.statnews.com\/2020\/06\/11\/coronavirus-immunity-vaccine-development\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Coronavirus immunity is a mystery. Scientists are trying to crack the case\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.statnews.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/AP_20141851970028-1024x576.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Coronavirus immunity is a mystery. Scientists are trying to crack the case<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Just because you\u2019ve recovered from Covid-19 doesn\u2019t guarantee you\u2019re protected from contracting it again. So what does immunity look like?<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.abbott.com\/IDNOW\/IDNOW-COVID-19-FAQ.html\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"ID NOW COVID-19 Testing Questions Answered | Abbott U.S.\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/dam.abbott.com\/global\/icons\/flag_us.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">ID NOW COVID-19 Testing Questions Answered | Abbott U.S.<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Frequently asked questions (FAQ) related to Abbott\u2019s ID NOW rapid molecular test for novel coronavirus (COVID-19).<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.immunopaedia.org.za\/glossary\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Glossary of Immunology terms | Immunopaedia\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.immunopaedia.org.za\/wp-content\/themes\/immunopaedia\/images\/immunopaedia.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Glossary of Immunology terms | Immunopaedia<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">A full glossary of Immunology and immunological terms and terminology<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK209710\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"How Infection Works - What You Need to Know About Infectious Disease - NCBI Bookshelf\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/static.pubmed.gov\/portal\/portal3rc.fcgi\/4176521\/img\/28977\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">How Infection Works &#8211; What You Need to Know About Infectious Disease &#8211; NCBI Bookshelf<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">There is a close connection between microbes and humans. Experts believe about half of all human DNA originated from viruses that infected and embedded their nucleic acid in our ancestors\u2019 egg and sperm cells.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/bio.libretexts.org\/Bookshelves\/Introductory_and_General_Biology\/Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)\/21%3A_Viruses\/21.2%3A_Virus_Infections_and_Hosts\/21.2A%3A_Steps_of_Virus_Infections\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"21.2A: Steps of Virus Infections\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/a.mtstatic.com\/@public\/production\/site_4463\/1478192291-social-share.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">21.2A: Steps of Virus Infections<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Viral infection involves the incorporation of viral DNA into a host cell, replication of that material, and the release of the new viruses.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.slideshare.net\/muradkhanmb\/overview-of-immune-response-69712571?next_slideshow=1\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Overview of immune response\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cdn.slidesharecdn.com\/ss_thumbnails\/overviewofimmuneresponse-161201074821-thumbnail-4.jpg?cb=1480578583\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Overview of immune response<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Properties and overview of immume system<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-microbiology\/chapter\/viral-replication\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Viral Replication | Boundless Microbiology\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-microbiology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1950\/2017\/06\/virus-163471_1280.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Viral Replication | Boundless Microbiology<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Virologists describe the formation of viruses during the infection process in target host cells as viral replication.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antibody\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Antibody - Wikipedia\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/2d\/Antibody.svg\/1200px-Antibody.svg.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Antibody &#8211; Wikipedia<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p>Antibodies typically bind to the virus&#8217; <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2020.584251\/full\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">nucleocapsid (N), the spike (S), or receptor binding domain (S-RBD) portion of the spike<\/a>. Each of these proteins have differing epitopes such that the antibodies for each are different. An antibody which binds to the S-RBD will neutralize the virus by preventing it&#8217;s attachment to a cell. All antibodies will attract phagocytes, etc. via the Fc region of the antibody.<br>&#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41423-020-0400-4\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">A coronavirus contains four structural proteins, including spike (S), envelope (E), membrane (M), and nucleocapsid (N) proteins.<sup>2,10,11<\/sup> Among them, S protein plays the most important roles in viral attachment, fusion and entry, and it serves as a target for development of antibodies, entry inhibitors and vaccines.<sup>1,12,13,14,15,16,17<\/sup> The S protein mediates viral entry into host cells by first binding to a host receptor through the receptor-binding domain (RBD) in the S1 subunit and then fusing the viral and host membranes through the S2 subunit.<sup>16,18,19<\/sup> SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV RBDs recognize different receptors. SARS-CoV recognizes angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2)&nbsp;as its receptor, whereas MERS-CoV recognizes dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4)&nbsp;as its receptor.<sup>20,21<\/sup> Similar to SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2 also recognizes ACE2 as its host receptor binding to viral S protein.<sup>22<\/sup> Therefore, it is critical to define the RBD in SARS-CoV-2 S protein as the most likely target for the development of virus attachment inhibitors, neutralizing antibodies, and vaccines.<\/a>&#8220;<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neutralizing_antibody#Difference_between_neutralizing_antibodies_and_binding_antibodies\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Neutralizing antibody - Wikipedia\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/2d\/Antibody.svg\/100px-Antibody.svg.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Neutralizing antibody &#8211; Wikipedia<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Standard antibody representation.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Immunoglobulin_A\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Immunoglobulin A - Wikipedia\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/85\/Dimeric_IgA_schematic_01.svg\/1200px-Dimeric_IgA_schematic_01.svg.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Immunoglobulin A &#8211; Wikipedia<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Humoral_immunity\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Humoral immunity - Wikipedia\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/da\/Humoral_Response_Drawing.svg\/220px-Humoral_Response_Drawing.svg.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Humoral immunity &#8211; Wikipedia<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">\u201cHumoral\u201d redirects here. It is not to be confused with humeral.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.immunology.org\/public-information\/bitesized-immunology\/immune-development\/b-cell-activation-and-the-germinal-centre\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"B cell activation and the germinal centre response\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.immunology.org\/modules\/file\/icons\/application-pdf.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">B cell activation and the germinal centre response<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">B cell activation B cells are activated when their B cell receptor (BCR) binds to either soluble or membrane bound antigen. This activates the BCR to form microclusters and trigger downstream<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polyclonal_B_cell_response\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Polyclonal B cell response - Wikipedia\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/10\/Schematic_diagram_showing_Polyclonal_Response_by_B_cells_against_Linear_Epitopes.PNG\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Polyclonal B cell response &#8211; Wikipedia<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">This article deals with immune response in the jawed vertebrates and, more specifically, mammals.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p>&#8220;A long-standing debate about whether specific memory is maintained by distinct populations of long-lived memory cells that can persist without residual antigen, or by lymphocytes that are under perpetual stimulation by residual antigen, appears to have been settled in favor of the former hypothesis.&#8221;<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK27158\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Immunological memory - Immunobiology - NCBI Bookshelf\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/static.pubmed.gov\/portal\/portal3rc.fcgi\/4176521\/img\/28977\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Immunological memory &#8211; Immunobiology &#8211; NCBI Bookshelf<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Having considered how an appropriate primary immune response is mounted to pathogens in both the peripheral lymphoid system and the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues, we now turn to immunological memory, which is a feature of both compartments. Perhaps the most important consequence of an adaptive \u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/microbiology\/chapter\/b-lymphocytes-and-humoral-immunity\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"B Lymphocytes and Humoral Immunity | Microbiology\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/microbiology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1094\/2016\/11\/bacteria-359956_1280.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">B Lymphocytes and Humoral Immunity | Microbiology<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Humoral immunity refers to mechanisms of the adaptive immune defenses that are mediated by antibodies secreted by B lymphocytes, or B cells. This section will focus on B cells and discuss their production and maturation, receptors, and mechanisms of activation.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cell.com\/immunity\/comments\/S1074-7613(16)30345-4\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Germinal Center B Cell Dynamics\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/marlin-prod.literatumonline.com\/cms\/attachment\/2108784557\/2082614435\/gr1.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Germinal Center B Cell Dynamics<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Germinal centers are ultrastructural sites within lymphoid tissue that support the<br \/>\nmaturation of B lymphocytes into antibody-secreting cells. In this review, Mesin et\u00a0al.<br \/>\nupdate the current understanding of the cellular interactions and positioning of B<br \/>\nlymphocytes within these foci to support a hum\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0042682200902393\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Antibody and Virus: Binding and Neutralization\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/ars.els-cdn.com\/content\/image\/1-s2.0-S0042682220X00122-cov150h.gif\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Antibody and Virus: Binding and Neutralization<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s42003-020-01526-8\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"The kinetics of humoral response and its relationship with the disease severity in COVID-19\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/media.springernature.com\/m685\/springer-static\/image\/art%3A10.1038%2Fs42003-020-01526-8\/MediaObjects\/42003_2020_1526_Fig1_HTML.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">The kinetics of humoral response and its relationship with the disease severity in COVID-19<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Lili Ren et al. investigate antibody response from 176 COVID-19 patients who presented different stages of their disease. This study suggests the late onset of antibody response as a risk factor for disease severity and a limited role of antibody titers in predicting the disease severity of COVID-19\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/wwwnc.cdc.gov\/eid\/article\/27\/3\/20-4543_article\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Antibody Responses 8 Months after Asymptomatic or Mild SARS-CoV-2 Infection\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/wwwnc.cdc.gov\/eid\/images\/og-eid-logo-2.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Antibody Responses 8 Months after Asymptomatic or Mild SARS-CoV-2 Infection<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Waning humoral immunity in coronavirus disease patients has raised concern over usefulness of serologic testing. We investigated antibody responses o&#8230;<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2018.02673\/full\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Long-Lived Plasma Cells in Mice and Men\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/files\/MyHome%20Article%20Library\/386243\/386243_Thumb_400.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Long-Lived Plasma Cells in Mice and Men<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Even though more than 30 years have passed since the eradication of smallpox, high titers of smallpox-specific antibodies are still detected in the blood of subjects vaccinated in childhood. In fact, smallpox-specific antibody levels are maintained in serum for more than 70 years. The generation of \u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/medicine-and-dentistry\/plasmablast\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Plasmablast - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/ars.els-cdn.com\/content\/image\/3-s2.0-B9780123979339000126-f12-04-9780123979339.jpg?_\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Plasmablast &#8211; an overview | ScienceDirect Topics<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Plasmablasts leave the germinal center and terminally differentiate into non-dividing plasma cells (also known as antibody-secreting cells, or ASC), which are specialized to produce vast quantities of single isotype antibodies (reviewed in Refs [32,33]).<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Immune_tolerance\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Immune tolerance - Wikipedia\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/cb\/Sample_reaction_norm_graphic.jpg\/220px-Sample_reaction_norm_graphic.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Immune tolerance &#8211; Wikipedia<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Immune tolerance, or immunological tolerance, or immunotolerance, is a state of unresponsiveness of the immune system to substances or tissue that have the capacity to elicit an immune response in a given organism. It is induced by prior exposure to that specific antigen[1][2] and contrasts with con\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK2396\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Specificity and Cross-Reactivity - Immunology and Evolution of Infectious Disease - NCBI Bookshelf\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/static.pubmed.gov\/portal\/portal3rc.fcgi\/4176521\/img\/28977\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Specificity and Cross-Reactivity &#8211; Immunology and Evolution of Infectious Disease &#8211; NCBI Bookshelf<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">In this chapter, I describe the attributes of host and parasite molecules that determine immune recognition. Two terms frequently arise in discussions of recognition. Specificity measures the degree to which the immune system differentiates between different antigens. Cross-reactivity measures the e\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/341354165_MMR_Vaccine_Appears_to_Confer_Strong_Protection_from_COVID-19_Few_Deaths_from_SARS-CoV-2_in_Highly_Vaccinated_Populations\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"(PDF) MMR Vaccine Appears to Confer Strong Protection from COVID-19: Few Deaths from SARS-CoV-2 in Highly Vaccinated Populations\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/i1.rgstatic.net\/publication\/341354165_MMR_Vaccine_Appears_to_Confer_Strong_Protection_from_COVID-19_Few_Deaths_from_SARS-CoV-2_in_Highly_Vaccinated_Populations\/links\/5ebc0220a6fdcc90d67350c9\/largepreview.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">(PDF) MMR Vaccine Appears to Confer Strong Protection from COVID-19: Few Deaths from SARS-CoV-2 in Highly Vaccinated Populations<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">PDF | Published epidemiological data suggests a correlation between patients who receive measles-rubella containing vaccines such as the commonly&#8230; | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/28482788\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Defensive and Offensive Cross-Reactive Antibodies Elicited by Pathogens: The Good, the Bad and the Ugly - PubMed\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/persistent\/pubmed-meta-image.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Defensive and Offensive Cross-Reactive Antibodies Elicited by Pathogens: The Good, the Bad and the Ugly &#8211; PubMed<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Understanding how immunity to pathogens develops is crucial for progress in the quest for effective vaccines. Intraspecies and interspecies cross-reacting antibodies are produced in high frequency against immune-relevant and shared microbial epitopes. It has been confirmed that cross-reactive antige\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/science.sciencemag.org\/content\/369\/6511\/eaay4014\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"The science and medicine of human immunology\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/science.sciencemag.org\/content\/sci\/369\/6511\/eaay4014\/F1.large.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">The science and medicine of human immunology<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has underscored the critical need to better understand the human immune system and how to unleash its power to develop vaccines and therapeutics. Much of our knowledge of the immune system has accrued from studies in mice, yet vaccines and drugs that \u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p>There are some misleading statements regarding 1) reinfection and 2) vaccines always being better than an actual infection; in the overview information, but there are also important details within &#8220;Why a vaccine can provide better immunity than an actual infection.&#8221; As with all scientific publications, read with care and a critical mind.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/theconversation.com\/why-a-vaccine-can-provide-better-immunity-than-an-actual-infection-145476\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Why a vaccine can provide better immunity than an actual infection\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/images.theconversation.com\/files\/356975\/original\/file-20200908-14-c8e9c5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;rect=0%2C261%2C6709%2C3349&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1356&amp;h=668&amp;fit=crop\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Why a vaccine can provide better immunity than an actual infection<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">A few people have developed COVID-19 twice. That doesn\u2019t mean a vaccine can\u2019t offer long-term protection.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41577-020-00479-7\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"A guide to vaccinology: from basic principles to new developments\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/media.springernature.com\/m685\/springer-static\/image\/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41577-020-00479-7\/MediaObjects\/41577_2020_479_Fig1_HTML.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">A guide to vaccinology: from basic principles to new developments<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">This Review, aimed at a broad scientific audience, provides an introductory guide to the history, development and immunological basis of vaccines, immunization and related issues to provide insight into the challenges facing immunologists who are designing the next generation of vaccines.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/news\/2020\/09\/hidden-immune-weakness-found-14-gravely-ill-covid-19-patients?s=09\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Hidden immune weakness found in 14% of gravely ill COVID-19 patients\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/sites\/default\/files\/styles\/article_main_large\/public\/ca_0925NID_Coronavirus_Patient_Italy_online.jpg?itok=EkKjQGGm\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Hidden immune weakness found in 14% of gravely ill COVID-19 patients<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Damaged interferon response helps explain why men get sicker than women<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK26884\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"B Cells and Antibodies - Molecular Biology of the Cell - NCBI Bookshelf\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/static.pubmed.gov\/portal\/portal3rc.fcgi\/4192223\/img\/28977\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">B Cells and Antibodies &#8211; Molecular Biology of the Cell &#8211; NCBI Bookshelf<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Vertebrates inevitably die of infection if they are unable to make antibodies. Antibodies defend us against infection by binding to viruses and microbial toxins, thereby inactivating them (see Figure 24-2). The binding of antibodies to invading pathogens also recruits various types of white blood ce\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3839062\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Both mutated and unmutated memory B cells accumulate mutations in the course of the secondary response and develop a new antibody repertoire optimally adapted to the secondary stimulus\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/corehtml\/pmc\/pmcgifs\/pmc-logo-share.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Both mutated and unmutated memory B cells accumulate mutations in the course of the secondary response and develop a new antibody repertoire optimally adapted to the secondary stimulus<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">High-affinity memory B cells are preferentially selected during secondary responses and rapidly differentiate into antibody-producing cells. However, it remains unknown whether only high-affinity, mutated memory B cells simply expand to dominate the secondary &#8230;<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41577-020-00446-2\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Transcriptional regulation of memory B cell differentiation\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/media.springernature.com\/m685\/springer-static\/image\/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41577-020-00446-2\/MediaObjects\/41577_2020_446_Fig1_HTML.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Transcriptional regulation of memory B cell differentiation<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Memory B cells are critically important for the formation of protective immunity following infection or vaccination, and a better understanding of these cells may inform strategies to overcome hurdles in the development of effective vaccines. This Review discusses the signals and transcription facto\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"http:\/\/genesdev.cshlp.org\/content\/18\/1\/1.long\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"The generation of antibody diversity through somatic hypermutation and class switch recombination\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/genesdev.cshlp.org\/local\/img\/society_logo.gif\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">The generation of antibody diversity through somatic hypermutation and class switch recombination<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">A biweekly scientific journal publishing high-quality research in molecular biology and genetics, cancer biology, biochemistry, and related fields<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p>&#8220;Memory B cells circulate throughout the body in a quiescent state until&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/medicine-and-dentistry\/antigen-specificity\">specific antigen<\/a>&nbsp;is re-encountered and triggers a potent&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/medicine-and-dentistry\/secondary-immune-response\">secondary immune response<\/a>. Memory cells respond to antigen much faster, require lower amounts of antigen, and can even be induced in its absence by soluble mediators such as IL-2 or&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/medicine-and-dentistry\/interleukin-15\">IL-15<\/a>, in part because the BCR is already localized to&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/medicine-and-dentistry\/lipid-raft\">lipid rafts<\/a>. Subsequently, just like na\u00efve B cells, memory B cells ingest antigen and express peptide\u2013MHC class II fragments. After&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/medicine-and-dentistry\/antigen-presentation\">antigen presentation<\/a>&nbsp;of peptide to&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/medicine-and-dentistry\/t-helper-cell\">helper T cells<\/a>, memory B cells undergo expansion and may differentiate to&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/medicine-and-dentistry\/plasma-cell\">plasma cells<\/a>.&#8221;<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/medicine-and-dentistry\/memory-b-cell\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Memory B Cell - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/sdfestaticassets-us-east-1.sciencedirectassets.com\/shared-assets\/24\/images\/elsevier-non-solus-new-grey.svg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Memory B Cell &#8211; an overview | ScienceDirect Topics<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Claire-Anne Siegrist, in Vaccines (Fifth Edition), 2008<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/ncomms11826\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Long-lived antigen-induced IgM plasma cells demonstrate somatic mutations and contribute to long-term protection\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/media.springernature.com\/m685\/springer-static\/image\/art%3A10.1038%2Fncomms11826\/MediaObjects\/41467_2016_Article_BFncomms11826_Fig1_HTML.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Long-lived antigen-induced IgM plasma cells demonstrate somatic mutations and contribute to long-term protection<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Long-lived IgG plasma cells develop in germinal centres and then home to the bone marrow and persist for a lifetime. Here the authors identify long-lived IgM plasma cells in the murine spleen, which carry IgH mutations but can develop independently of germinal centres, and confer protective antivira\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2020.584251\/full?fbclid=IwAR0oWtJeVIe7NEBu2klpqlDGrs682WqYbFDVs8s1SzMKdSC9AKawUpAXNfs\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Anti-spike, Anti-nucleocapsid and Neutralizing Antibodies in SARS-CoV-2 Inpatients and Asymptomatic Individuals\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/files\/MyHome%20Article%20Library\/584251\/584251_Thumb_400.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Anti-spike, Anti-nucleocapsid and Neutralizing Antibodies in SARS-CoV-2 Inpatients and Asymptomatic Individuals<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">A better understanding of the anti-SARS-CoV-2 immune response is necessary to finely evaluate commercial serological assays but also to predict protection against reinfection and to help the development of vaccines. For this reason, we monitored the anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody response in infected pati\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41551-020-00660-2?fbclid=IwAR1enpn7oIj_GYzquJA927ggfSpz6H4Zi-Du3PhgwdxoCxp4jRBxIO7hsO4\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Neutralizing antibodies for the treatment of COVID-19\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/media.springernature.com\/m685\/springer-static\/image\/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41551-020-00660-2\/MediaObjects\/41551_2020_660_Fig1_HTML.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Neutralizing antibodies for the treatment of COVID-19<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">More clinical trial data are needed to determine whether sera from COVID-19-convalescent patients and neutralizing monoclonal antibodies specific to SARS-CoV-2 antigens can prevent COVID-19 or reduce the severity of the disease in high-risk populations.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/jvi.asm.org\/content\/94\/13\/e00647-20\/article-info?fbclid=IwAR00KPsUOVe6Z5cuAvDxL5BiKRWqunzgCbxXmAso__Fbjay1rcJ6vECx9I4\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"The Nucleocapsid Protein of SARS\u2013CoV-2: a Target for Vaccine Development\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/jvi.asm.org\/content\/jvi\/94\/13\/e00647-20\/embed\/icon-1.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">The Nucleocapsid Protein of SARS\u2013CoV-2: a Target for Vaccine Development<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">During the current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS\u2013CoV-2), there has been an unprecedented level of global collaboration that has led to a rapid characterization of SARS\u2013CoV-2 ([1][1]). Its sequence shares 79.6%<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00721\/full\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"The Maintenance of Memory Plasma Cells\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/files\/MyHome%20Article%20Library\/441953\/441953_Thumb_400.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">The Maintenance of Memory Plasma Cells<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">It is now well accepted that plasma cells can become long-lived (memory) plasma cells and secrete antibodies for months, years or a lifetime. However, the mechanisms involved in this process of humoral memory, which is crucial for both protective immunity and autoimmunity, still are not fully unders\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01787\/full\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Remembrance of Things Past: Long-Term B Cell Memory After Infection and Vaccination\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/files\/MyHome%20Article%20Library\/478641\/478641_Thumb_400.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Remembrance of Things Past: Long-Term B Cell Memory After Infection and Vaccination<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">The success of vaccines is dependent on the generation and maintenance of immunological memory. The immune system can remember previously encountered pathogens, and memory B and T cells are critical in secondary responses to infection. Studies in mice have helped to understand how different memory B\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"Possible-Long-Term-Immunity-From-Mother's-Milk\"><a href=\"#Possible-Long-Term-Immunity-From-Mother's-Milk\">Possible Long Term Immunity From Mother&#8217;s Milk<\/a><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>While it is well established that short-term protection of an infant can arise from breast-feeding <a href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/33758889\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">even for COVID-19<\/a>, there is some evidence that long-term immunity may be passed from mother to child through mother&#8217;s milk. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.jimmunol.org\/content\/182\/11\/7155#:~:text=Breast%20milk%20B%20cells%20displayed,memory%20and%20naive%20B%20cells.&amp;text=We%20also%20observed%20a%20higher,measured%20by%20Ig%20ELISPOT%20assays.\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Studies in animal models indicated that leukocytes from milk may infiltrate the tissues of intestinal tract, enter in mesenteric lymph nodes, and confer immunity to the recipient<\/a>. It has also been shown that <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4902239\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Most breast milk lymphocytes establish themselves in specific areas of the intestine termed Peyer\u2019s patches (PPs)<\/a>. It appears that it is also possible for <a href=\"https:\/\/www.biorxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/268326v2.full\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">lymphocytes such as T and B cells have the ability to migrate from the blood to secondary lymphoid tissues such as spleen, lymph nodes, and Peyer\u2019s patches, and then migrate back to the blood<\/a>. While this is not a high-prevalence scenario, it could result in small amounts of long-lasting B mem that results in a level of future protection of the child resulting from breast-feeding. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2012.00329\/full\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">We know that oral immunization stimulate mucosal and systemic memory B cell development.<\/a> It appears that <a href=\"https:\/\/www.medscape.com\/viewarticle\/814970_4\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">in rodent models, perinatal antigen exposure via mother&#8217;s milk has been shown to prime the suckling animal&#8217;s immune responses in a manner so profound that the effects can still be detected two generations later<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Also See: <a href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/covid-19-antibody-testing\/#Immune-System-Function\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Immune System Function<\/a><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"References\"><br>References<\/h3>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4342672\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Validation of the Wild-type Influenza A Human Challenge Model H1N1pdMIST: An A(H1N1)pdm09 Dose-Finding Investigational New Drug Study\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/corehtml\/pmc\/pmcgifs\/pmc-logo-share.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Validation of the Wild-type Influenza A Human Challenge Model H1N1pdMIST: An A(H1N1)pdm09 Dose-Finding Investigational New Drug Study<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Background.\u2003Healthy volunteer wild-type influenza challenge models offer a unique opportunity to evaluate multiple aspects of this important virus. Such studies have not been performed in the United States in more than a decade, limiting our capability &#8230;<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/doi\/full\/10.1056\/NEJMoa2034545\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Antibody Status and Incidence of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Health Care Workers | NEJM\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/na101\/home\/literatum\/publisher\/mms\/journals\/content\/nejm\/0\/nejm.ahead-of-print\/nejmoa2034545\/20201223\/images\/img_small\/nejmoa2034545_f1.jpeg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Antibody Status and Incidence of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Health Care Workers | NEJM<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Original Article from The New England Journal of Medicine \u2014 Antibody Status and Incidence of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Health Care Workers<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.thelancet.com\/journals\/laninf\/article\/PIIS1473-3099(20)30232-2\/fulltext\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Viral dynamics in mild and severe cases of COVID-19\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/marlin-prod.literatumonline.com\/cms\/asset\/3734fe9c-4fcc-4de2-b860-251ad722a239\/gr1.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Viral dynamics in mild and severe cases of COVID-19<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a new pandemic disease. We previously reported<br \/>\nthat the viral load of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)<br \/>\npeaks within the first week of disease onset.1,2 Findings from Feb, 2020, indicated<br \/>\nthat the clinical spectrum of this disease can\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/d41586-020-02379-1?fbclid=IwAR3tCMvAM8jixTdAJ0DvhQKjc4Zha6a2I_DKKwYDAayKIIRQWbVmApgP7JI\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"COVID-19 poses a riddle for the immune system\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/media.nature.com\/lw1024\/magazine-assets\/d41586-020-02379-1\/d41586-020-02379-1_18286968.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">COVID-19 poses a riddle for the immune system<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Variations in patient defence responses tracked over time.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/doi\/full\/10.1056\/NEJMc2027040?query=featured_home\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Duration of Culturable SARS-CoV-2 in Hospitalized Patients with Covid-19 | NEJM\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/na101\/home\/literatum\/publisher\/mms\/journals\/content\/nejm\/0\/nejm.ahead-of-print\/nejmc2027040\/20210126\/images\/img_medium\/nejmc2027040_f1.jpeg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Duration of Culturable SARS-CoV-2 in Hospitalized Patients with Covid-19 | NEJM<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Correspondence from The New England Journal of Medicine \u2014 Duration of Culturable SARS-CoV-2 in Hospitalized Patients with Covid-19<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cebm.net\/covid-19\/sars-cov-2-viral-load-and-the-severity-of-covid-19\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"SARS-CoV-2 viral load and the severity of COVID-19 - CEBM\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.cebm.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/viral-load.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">SARS-CoV-2 viral load and the severity of COVID-19 &#8211; CEBM<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">The relationship of viral load and severity of the disease in SARs, SARs-CoV-2 and Influenza, and a summary of the sources on healthcare workers mortality.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencemediacentre.org\/expert-reaction-to-questions-about-covid-19-and-viral-load\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"expert reaction to questions about COVID-19 and viral load | Science Media Centre\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencemediacentre.org\/wp-content\/themes\/SMC\/images\/HeaderLogo.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">expert reaction to questions about COVID-19 and viral load | Science Media Centre<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">There have been questions from journalists about viral load ad the COVID-19 outbreak.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cell.com\/cell\/fulltext\/S0092-8674(20)31008-4\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Robust T Cell Immunity in Convalescent Individuals with Asymptomatic or Mild COVID-19\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/els-jbs-prod-cdn.jbs.elsevierhealth.com\/cms\/asset\/c975d7ea-f637-4a10-874e-c57e63d78576\/fx1.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Robust T Cell Immunity in Convalescent Individuals with Asymptomatic or Mild COVID-19<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Sekine et\u00a0al. provide a functional and phenotypic map of SARS-CoV-2-specific T\u00a0cells<br \/>\nacross the full spectrum of exposure, infection, and COVID-19 severity. They observe<br \/>\nthat SARS-CoV-2 elicits broadly directed and functionally replete memory T cells that<br \/>\nmay protect against recurrent episodes of se\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/science.sciencemag.org\/content\/early\/2020\/07\/01\/science.abc5343.long\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Primary exposure to SARS-CoV-2 protects against reinfection in rhesus macaques\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/science.sciencemag.org\/content\/sci\/369\/6505\/818\/F1.large.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Primary exposure to SARS-CoV-2 protects against reinfection in rhesus macaques<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">One of the many open questions about severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection is whether an individual who has cleared the virus can be infected a second time and get sick. Chandrashekar et al. and Deng et al. generated rhesus macaque models of SARS-CoV-2 infection and \u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2020.08.11.20171843v2?fbclid=IwAR2rRlkfvHIEkSosxUkcLX79cy3ivHcay7Tbot2RACKHowXz2x-qeIl33uY\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Functional SARS-CoV-2-specific immune memory persists after mild COVID-19\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/sites\/default\/files\/medrxiv_internal_logo.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Functional SARS-CoV-2-specific immune memory persists after mild COVID-19<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">The recently emerged SARS-CoV-2 virus is currently causing a global pandemic and cases continue to rise. The majority of infected individuals experience mildly symptomatic coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), but it is unknown whether this can induce persistent immune memory that might contribute to\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC2677258\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Implications of vaccination and waning immunity\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/corehtml\/pmc\/pmcgifs\/pmc-logo-share.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Implications of vaccination and waning immunity<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">For infectious diseases where immunization can offer lifelong protection, a variety of simple models can be used to explain the utility of vaccination as a control method. However, for many diseases, immunity wanes over time and is subsequently enhanced &#8230;<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2020.08.13.20173161v1.full\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Neutralizing antibodies correlate with protection from SARS-CoV-2 in humans during a fishery vessel outbreak with high attack rate\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/sites\/default\/files\/medrxiv_internal_logo.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Neutralizing antibodies correlate with protection from SARS-CoV-2 in humans during a fishery vessel outbreak with high attack rate<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">The development of vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 would be greatly facilitated by the identification of immunological correlates of protection in humans. However, to date, studies on protective immunity have only been performed in animal models and correlates of protection have not been established in \u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/doi\/full\/10.1056\/NEJMoa2026116\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Humoral Immune Response to SARS-CoV-2 in Iceland | NEJM\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/na101\/home\/literatum\/publisher\/mms\/journals\/content\/nejm\/0\/nejm.ahead-of-print\/nejmoa2026116\/20200901\/images\/img_medium\/nejmoa2026116_f1.jpeg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Humoral Immune Response to SARS-CoV-2 in Iceland | NEJM<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Original Article from The New England Journal of Medicine \u2014 Humoral Immune Response to SARS-CoV-2 in Iceland<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/341529279_SARS-CoV-2_infection_protects_against_rechallenge_in_rhesus_macaques\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"ResearchGate\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/c5.rgstatic.net\/m\/4178589892570\/images\/icons\/blocked.svg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">ResearchGate<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">ResearchGate is a network dedicated to science and research. Connect, collaborate and discover scientific publications, jobs and conferences. All for free.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.biorxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2020.03.13.990226v1\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Another monkey study<\/a><\/h4>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7223428\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Estimation of the Probability of Reinfection With COVID-19 by the Susceptible-Exposed-Infectious-Removed-Undetectable-Susceptible Model\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/corehtml\/pmc\/pmcgifs\/pmc-logo-share.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Estimation of the Probability of Reinfection With COVID-19 by the Susceptible-Exposed-Infectious-Removed-Undetectable-Susceptible Model<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">With the sensitivity of the polymerase chain reaction test used to detect the presence of the virus in the human host, the worldwide health community has been able to record a large number of the recovered population.The aim of this study was to evaluate &#8230;<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/hartfordhealthcare.org\/about-us\/news-press\/news-detail?articleid=26868&amp;publicId=395\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"CDC Antibody Study: Number Infected by COVID-19 in State 6 Times Higher Than Reported | Hartford HealthCare\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/healthnewshub.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/NeswsCovid19testtube.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">CDC Antibody Study: Number Infected by COVID-19 in State 6 Times Higher Than Reported | Hartford HealthCare<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\"><p>Only New York showed more COVID-19 infections than Connecticut through early May, according to a report that also revealed the number of people infected by the virus is actually about six times more than the number reported by the state. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) studie\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p><br>&#8220;We performed a longitudinal analysis of antibody titers specific for viral antigens (vaccinia, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella\u2013zoster virus, and Epstein\u2013Barr virus) and nonreplicating antigens (tetanus and diphtheria) in 45 subjects for a period of up to 26 years. In addition, we measured antigen-specific memory B cells by means of limiting-dilution analysis, and we compared memory B-cell frequencies to their corresponding serum antibody levels.&#8221;<br>&#8230;<br>&#8220;These studies provide quantitative analysis of serologic memory for multiple antigens in subjects followed longitudinally over the course of more than one decade. In cases in which multiple exposures or repeated vaccinations were common, <strong><em>memory B-cell numbers did not correlate with antibody titers&#8221;<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/doi\/full\/10.1056\/NEJMoa066092\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Duration of Humoral Immunity to Common Viral and Vaccine Antigens | NEJM\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/na101\/home\/literatum\/publisher\/mms\/journals\/content\/nejm\/2007\/nejm_2007.357.issue-19\/nejmoa066092\/production\/images\/img_small\/nejmoa066092_f1.jpeg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Duration of Humoral Immunity to Common Viral and Vaccine Antigens | NEJM<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Original Article from The New England Journal of Medicine \u2014 Duration of Humoral Immunity to Common Viral and Vaccine Antigens<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p><br>&#8220;there is no statistically significant linear correlation between the frequencies of circulating antigen-specific IgG-bearing memory B cells and the serum titers of antigen-specific IgG&#8221;<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/11388615\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Absence of anti-hepatitis B surface antibody after vaccination does not necessarily mean absence of immune response - PubMed\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/persistent\/pubmed-meta-image.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Absence of anti-hepatitis B surface antibody after vaccination does not necessarily mean absence of immune response &#8211; PubMed<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">A small number of subjects vaccinated against hepatitis B do not produce anti-hepatitis B surface (HBs) antibody levels detectable by commercial assays. Others lose detectable anti-HBs at some time after vaccination. The absence of clinical hepatitis despite potential exposure to hepatitis B virus (\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p><br>&#8220;In cases in which multiple exposures or repeated vaccinations were common, memory B-cell numbers did not correlate with antibody titers&#8221;<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/10229109\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Correlation analysis between frequencies of circulating antigen-specific IgG-bearing memory B cells and serum titers of antigen-specific IgG - PubMed\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/persistent\/pubmed-meta-image.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Correlation analysis between frequencies of circulating antigen-specific IgG-bearing memory B cells and serum titers of antigen-specific IgG &#8211; PubMed<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Recent studies in mice have indicated that the long-lasting specific antibody responses seen after vaccination are probably due to the existence of long-lived plasma cells. Therefore, because the maintenance of humoral immunity does not necessarily reflect continuous restimulation of long-lived memo\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p>&#8220;After a disease outbreak, recovered individuals constitute a large immune population; however, their immunity is waning in the long term and they may become susceptible again. Meanwhile, their immunity can be boosted by repeated exposure to the pathogen, which is linked to the density of infected individuals present in the population.&#8221;<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/complexity\/2018\/9264743\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Temporal Evolution of Immunity Distributions in a Population with Waning and Boosting\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/images.hindawi.com\/journals\/complexity\/complexity.banner.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Temporal Evolution of Immunity Distributions in a Population with Waning and Boosting<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">We investigate the temporal evolution of the distribution of immunities in a population, which is determined by various epidemiological, immunological, and demographical phenomena: after a disease outbreak, recovered individuals constitute a large immune population; however, their immunity is waning\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pnas.org\/content\/101\/25\/9357\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"IL-7 regulates basal homeostatic proliferation of antiviral CD4+T cell memory\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.pnas.org\/content\/pnas\/101\/25\/9357\/F1.large.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">IL-7 regulates basal homeostatic proliferation of antiviral CD4+T cell memory<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Heightened protection from infectious disease as conferred by vaccination or pathogen exposure relies on the effective generation and preservation of specific immunological memory. T cells are irreducibly required for the control of most viral infections, and maintenance of CD8+T cell memory is regu\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5167048\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"The life cycle of a T cell after vaccination \u2013 where does immune ageing strike?\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/corehtml\/pmc\/pmcgifs\/pmc-logo-share.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">The life cycle of a T cell after vaccination \u2013 where does immune ageing strike?<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Vaccination is the optimal intervention to prevent the increased morbidity and mortality from infection in older individuals and to maintain immune health during ageing. To optimize benefits from vaccination, strategies have to be developed that overcome &#8230;<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/immunology.sciencemag.org\/content\/5\/54\/eabf3698\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Discordant neutralizing antibody and T cell responses in asymptomatic and mild SARS-CoV-2 infection\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/immunology.sciencemag.org\/content\/immunology\/5\/54\/eabf3698\/F1.large.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Discordant neutralizing antibody and T cell responses in asymptomatic and mild SARS-CoV-2 infection<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Understanding the nature of immunity following mild\/asymptomatic infection with SARS-CoV-2 is crucial to controlling the pandemic. We analyzed T cell and neutralizing antibody responses in 136 healthcare workers (HCW) 16-18 weeks after United Kingdom lockdown, 76 of whom had mild\/asymptomatic SARS-C\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/erj.ersjournals.com\/content\/early\/2020\/05\/13\/13993003.00763-2020\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Serology characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 infection since exposure and post symptom onset\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/erj.ersjournals.com\/sites\/default\/files\/additional-assets\/social_facebook_blue.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Serology characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 infection since exposure and post symptom onset<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Background Timely diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection is a prerequisite for treatment and prevention. The serology characteristics and complement diagnosis value of the antibody test to RNA test need to be demonstrated. Method Serial sera of 80 patients with PCR-confirmed COVID-19 were collected at t\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/bio.libretexts.org\/Bookshelves\/Introductory_and_General_Biology\/Book%3A_Biology_(Kimball)\/15%3A_The_Anatomy_and_Physiology_of_Animals\/15.03%3A_Circulatory_Systems\/15.3E%3A_Blood\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"15.3E: Blood\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/a.mtstatic.com\/@public\/production\/site_4463\/1478192291-social-share.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">15.3E: Blood<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Blood is a liquid tissue.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/bio.libretexts.org\/Bookshelves\/Microbiology\/Book%3A_Microbiology_(OpenStax)\/20%3A_Laboratory_Analysis_of_the_Immune_Response\/20.03%3A_Agglutination_Assays\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"20.3: Agglutination Assays\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/a.mtstatic.com\/@public\/production\/site_4463\/1478192291-social-share.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">20.3: Agglutination Assays<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Learning Objectives<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/medrxiv\/early\/2020\/04\/18\/2020.04.15.20065623.full.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Neutralizing antibodies were detected even at the early stage of disease<\/a><\/h4>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK27158\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Immunological memory - Immunobiology - NCBI Bookshelf\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/static.pubmed.gov\/portal\/portal3rc.fcgi\/4176521\/img\/28977\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Immunological memory &#8211; Immunobiology &#8211; NCBI Bookshelf<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Having considered how an appropriate primary immune response is mounted to pathogens in both the peripheral lymphoid system and the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues, we now turn to immunological memory, which is a feature of both compartments. Perhaps the most important consequence of an adaptive \u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/d41586-020-02400-7?fbclid=IwAR0Nsv3etAAJTYYkvD2A16_FXcXdVMuw5xSLbgom2eP66aMoZQO1n_KEXwE\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"How strong is the immune response to COVID-19 infection?\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/media.nature.com\/lw1024\/magazine-assets\/d41586-020-02400-7\/d41586-020-02400-7_18278164.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">How strong is the immune response to COVID-19 infection?<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Viral immunologists say that results so far have been predictable \u2014 here\u2019s why that\u2019s good news.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2019\/03\/190320110619.htm\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Antibodies from earlier exposures affect response to new flu strains\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedaily.com\/img\/190320110619.gif\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Antibodies from earlier exposures affect response to new flu strains<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Research highlights role of immunological imprinting &#8212; or how the immune system fights the flu after previous exposure to the virus via infections or vaccinations &#8212; in the elicitation of new antibodies.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3899649\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Immunity and immunopathology to viruses: what decides the outcome?\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/corehtml\/pmc\/pmcgifs\/pmc-logo-share.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Immunity and immunopathology to viruses: what decides the outcome?<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Many viruses infect humans and most are controlled satisfactorily by the immune system with limited damage to host tissues. Some viruses, however, do cause overt damage to the host, either in isolated cases or as a reaction that commonly occurs after &#8230;<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.virology.ws\/2020\/09\/03\/the-route-matters\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"The Route Matters\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.virology.ws\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/11\/blog20.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">The Route Matters<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Intranasal administration of an adenovirus-vectored vaccine candidate may lead to better mucosal immunity that inhibits SARS-CoV-2 infection and prevents both disease and transmission of virus.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.mayoclinic.org\/diseases-conditions\/coronavirus\/in-depth\/coronavirus-vaccine\/art-20484859\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Get the facts about a COVID-19 (coronavirus) vaccine\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mayoclinic.org\/-\/media\/web\/gbs\/shared\/images\/socialmedia-metadata\/mc_opengraph_600x315.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Get the facts about a COVID-19 (coronavirus) vaccine<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Know the challenges to creating a COVID-19 (coronavirus) vaccine, what\u2019s being researched, the vaccine timeline and how to prevent infection.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7184973\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Understanding Antibody Testing for COVID-19\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/corehtml\/pmc\/pmcgifs\/pmc-logo-share.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Understanding Antibody Testing for COVID-19<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">The orthopedic community has seen the COVID-19 pandemic decimate elective surgical volumes in most geographies. Patients and essential workers, such as health care providers, remain rightfully concerned about how to appropriately begin to return to work &#8230;<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.kumc.edu\/AMA-MSS\/Study\/micro1.htm\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Microbiology: Immunology\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.kumc.edu\/AMA-MSS\/Study\/return.gif\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Microbiology: Immunology<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Download a copy of this study guide<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ECKOAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA710&amp;lpg=PA710&amp;dq=OLIGOCLONAL+RESPONSE+repeat+exposure&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=fOBXmMAZ7W&amp;sig=ACfU3U3EQH9ediY-K6t-4eM4W4cFgfdUhQ&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwi6343CxMTqAhUFX60KHY2sCbAQ6AEwDHoECAwQAQ#v=onepage&amp;q=OLIGOCLONAL%20RESPONSE%20repeat%20exposure&amp;f=false\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Mucosal Immunology\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books\/content?id=ECKOAwAAQBAJ&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;img=1&amp;zoom=1&amp;edge=curl&amp;imgtk=AFLRE70efZCuwfwJRL2xL_LBaB2Y49174JGeCtOspq96YKmwgysVMCLCreaGuxwTduA8pvYmjFAhpIcjN95qYh93vek5dZyP0H9bdDxxNGbCI99e_qKmfKQaS-1xZzOtGx2PNg6fMtHb\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Mucosal Immunology<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Mucosal Immunology, now in its fourth edition, is the only comprehensive reference covering the basic science and clinical manifestations of mucosal immunology. Most infectious agents enter the body through the various mucous membranes, and many common infections take place in or on mucous membranes\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6290032\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Viral-Induced Enhanced Disease Illness\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/corehtml\/pmc\/pmcgifs\/pmc-logo-share.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Viral-Induced Enhanced Disease Illness<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Understanding immune responses to viral infections is crucial to progress in the quest for effective infection prevention and control. The host immunity involves various mechanisms to combat viral infections. Under certain circumstances, a viral infection &#8230;<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6132247\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Current state and challenges in developing oral vaccines\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/corehtml\/pmc\/pmcgifs\/pmc-logo-share.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Current state and challenges in developing oral vaccines<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">While vaccination remains the most cost effective strategy for disease prevention, communicable diseases persist as the second leading cause of death worldwide. There is a need to design safe, novel vaccine delivery methods to protect against unaddressed &#8230;<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p>Biodegradable vaccine delivery systems allow for prolonged antigen release and are a viable strategy to achieve single-dose administration, which is particularly desirable in the context of reducing number of repeated administrations required for long-term protection<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/mi201054?proof=trueIn\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Mucosal adjuvants and long-term memory development with special focus on CTA1-DD and other ADP-ribosylating toxins\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/media.springernature.com\/m685\/springer-static\/image\/art%3A10.1038%2Fmi.2010.54\/MediaObjects\/41385_2010_Article_BFmi201054_Fig1_HTML.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Mucosal adjuvants and long-term memory development with special focus on CTA1-DD and other ADP-ribosylating toxins<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Mucosal adjuvants and long-term memory development with special focus on CTA1-DD and other ADP-ribosylating toxins<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41467-019-11296-5\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Repeat vaccination reduces antibody affinity maturation across different influenza vaccine platforms in humans\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/media.springernature.com\/m685\/springer-static\/image\/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41467-019-11296-5\/MediaObjects\/41467_2019_11296_Fig1_HTML.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Repeat vaccination reduces antibody affinity maturation across different influenza vaccine platforms in humans<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Here, Khurana et al. report the results of a phase 4 clinical trial with three FDA approved influenza vaccines and show that repeat influenza vaccination results in reduced antibody affinity maturation to hemagglutinin domain 1 irrespective of vaccine platform.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/vaccines\/hcp\/acip-recs\/general-recs\/timing.html\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"ACIP Timing and Spacing Guidelines for Immunization | Recommendations | CDC\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">ACIP Timing and Spacing Guidelines for Immunization | Recommendations | CDC<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Timing and Spacing of Immunobiologics: General Best Practice Guidelines for Immunization. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.statnews.com\/2015\/11\/11\/flu-shots-reduce-effectiveness\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Getting a flu shot every year? More may not be better\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.statnews.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/10\/151007_WeakLinkFlu-1024x576.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Getting a flu shot every year? More may not be better<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Getting flu shots repeatedly can gradually reduce the effectiveness of the vaccines under some circumstances, research increasingly suggests.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/vaccines\/schedules\/hcp\/imz\/adult-shell.html\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Adult Immunization Schedule by Vaccine and Age Group | CDC\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/vaccines\/schedules\/images\/icon-V-thmb.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Adult Immunization Schedule by Vaccine and Age Group | CDC<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">View or print CDC official immunization schedule for adults (those 19 years and older).<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Immunoassay\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Immunoassay - Wikipedia\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/3c\/Immunoassay.svg\/1200px-Immunoassay.svg.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Immunoassay &#8211; Wikipedia<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Illustration of the basic components of an immunoassay, which includes an analyte (green), an antibody (black), and a detectable label (yellow).<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chemiluminescence\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Chemiluminescence - Wikipedia\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/17\/Chemoluminescent_reaction.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Chemiluminescence &#8211; Wikipedia<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5483212\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Chemiluminescent immunoassay technology: what does it change in autoantibody detection?\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/corehtml\/pmc\/pmcgifs\/pmc-logo-share.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Chemiluminescent immunoassay technology: what does it change in autoantibody detection?<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Diagnostic technology is rapidly evolving, and over the last decade, substantial progress has been made even for the identification of antibodies, increasingly approaching this type of diagnostic to that of automated clinical chemistry laboratory. In &#8230;<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/media\/137383\/download\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">SARS-CoV-2 IgG assay is a chemiluminescent microparticle immunoassay<\/a><\/h4>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.creative-diagnostics.com\/Chemiluminescence-Immunoassay-guide.htm\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Chemiluminescence Immunoassay Guide - Creative Diagnostics\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.creative-diagnostics.com\/images\/index-logo.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Chemiluminescence Immunoassay Guide &#8211; Creative Diagnostics<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">A guide to Chemiluminescence immunoassay. Including formats and fundamental of chemiluminescence (directly emission, enzyme catalyzed emission, electrogenerated emission).<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.lornelabs.com\/news-events\/blog\/what-is-chemiluminescent-immunoassay\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"What is Chemiluminescent immunoassay? | Lorne Laboratories UK\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.lornelabs.com\/assets\/images\/logo-lorne-labs-header.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">What is Chemiluminescent immunoassay? | Lorne Laboratories UK<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">16 March 2015<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.stat-technologies.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/Afinion-2-Analyzer-User-Manual-.pdf\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Afinion-2-Analyzer-User-Manual-.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Afinion-2-Analyzer-User-Manual-.pdf<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.calbiotech.com\/news\/128-clia\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Chemiluminescence Immunoassays (CLIA)\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.calbiotech.com\/images\/cbi_chemi_2013-1.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Chemiluminescence Immunoassays (CLIA)<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">For competitive Elisa assay, serum vitamin D3 test, enzyme immuneassay test, consider the very best in this business. Calbiotech, Inc.is your most reliable choice!<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.creative-diagnostics.com\/Chemiluminescence-Immunoassay-guide.htm\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Chemiluminescence Immunoassay Guide - Creative Diagnostics\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.creative-diagnostics.com\/images\/index-logo.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Chemiluminescence Immunoassay Guide &#8211; Creative Diagnostics<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">A guide to Chemiluminescence immunoassay. Including formats and fundamental of chemiluminescence (directly emission, enzyme catalyzed emission, electrogenerated emission).<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7264663\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Diagnostic accuracy of an automated chemiluminescent immunoassay for anti\u2010SARS\u2010CoV\u20102 IgM and IgG antibodies: an Italian experience\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/corehtml\/pmc\/pmcgifs\/pmc-logo-share.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Diagnostic accuracy of an automated chemiluminescent immunoassay for anti\u2010SARS\u2010CoV\u20102 IgM and IgG antibodies: an Italian experience<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">A pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID\u201019) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS\u2010CoV\u20102) has been spreading throughout the world. Though molecular diagnostic tests are the gold standard for COVID\u201019, &#8230;<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.citymd.com\/news\/understanding-covid-19-results\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Understanding your Serum Antibody (Blood Test) Results | CityMD\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Understanding your Serum Antibody (Blood Test) Results | CityMD<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Update: Due to increased national laboratory testing demand, please allow a minimum of 7 days for Serum Antibody IgG (blood test) lab results.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p>&#8220;In general, our elderly population has effective immunologic memory to things that they were exposed to when they were younger, but because this is a new virus, elderly people might have a difficult time generating an adaptive antiviral immune response.&#8221;<br><br>&#8220;if we are exposed to something multiple times, we generate robust and long-term immunity.&#8221;<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/medicalxpress.com\/news\/2020-05-dont-antibodies-immunity.html\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Why don\u2019t antibodies guarantee immunity?\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/scx2.b-cdn.net\/gfx\/news\/2020\/whydontantib.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Why don\u2019t antibodies guarantee immunity?<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">With millions of COVID-19 cases reported across the globe, people are turning to antibody tests to find out whether they have been exposed to the coronavirus that causes the disease. But what are antibodies? Why are they important? If we have them, are we immune to COVID-19? And if not, why not?<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.yahoo.com\/news\/covid-again-very-unlikely-experts-121103921.html\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Can You Get COVID Again? It\u2019s Very Unlikely, Experts Say\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s.yimg.com\/ny\/api\/res\/1.2\/N9vfqsXf8PDTWpM0pnH2eg--\/YXBwaWQ9aGlnaGxhbmRlcjt3PTEyODA7aD04NTMuMzMzMzMzMzMzMzMzNA--\/https:\/\/s.yimg.com\/uu\/api\/res\/1.2\/V2_mcz8bONIFpv3RKsNlDA--~B\/aD0yMjAwO3c9MzMwMDtzbT0xO2FwcGlkPXl0YWNoeW9u\/https:\/\/media.zenfs.com\/en\/the_new_york_times_articles_158\/1d989d355b9d65b0e14abd6483756461\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Can You Get COVID Again? It\u2019s Very Unlikely, Experts Say<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">The anecdotes are alarming. A woman in Los Angeles seemed to recover from COVID-19 but weeks later took a turn for the worse and tested positive again. A New&#8230;<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.10xgenomics.com\/blog\/appreciating-antibody-diversity-unexpected-isotypes-found-in-response-to-primary-infection\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Appreciating antibody diversity: unexpected isotypes found in response to primary infection - 10x Genomics\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cdn.10xgenomics.com\/image\/upload\/dpr_2.0,f_auto,q_auto\/v1597337362\/blog\/Antibody_opsonization.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Appreciating antibody diversity: unexpected isotypes found in response to primary infection &#8211; 10x Genomics<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Antibodies protect us from viruses, but researchers are still learning which isotypes bear that responsibility, and at what time points during infection. Read our blog to explore a study of antibody diversity in primary and secondary DENV infection.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"COVID-19-Vaccine-Study-Data\"><br><a href=\"#COVID-19-Vaccine-Study-Data\">COVID-19 Vaccine Data<\/a><\/h3>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2020\/science\/coronavirus-vaccine-tracker.html\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Coronavirus Vaccine Tracker\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2020\/06\/09\/us\/coronavirus-vaccine-tracker-promo-1591728041922\/coronavirus-vaccine-tracker-promo-1591728041922-facebookJumbo-v43.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Coronavirus Vaccine Tracker<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">A look at all the vaccines that have reached trials in humans.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/biorender.com\/covid-vaccine-tracker\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"COVID-19 Vaccine and Therapeutic Drugs Tracker\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.biorender.com\/images\/vaccine-social-image.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">COVID-19 Vaccine and Therapeutic Drugs Tracker<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">COVID-19 Vaccine and Therapeutics Tracker, updated daily. Get the latest updates on vaccine and therapeutic drug development for coronavirus.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.axios.com\/covid-vaccines-coronavirus-moderna-pfizer-oxford-d9522a80-c1c5-4da2-b7d8-c6c90c28b4b3.html\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Key information about the effective COVID-19 vaccines\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/images.axios.com\/_-WKdAq5QtFIfi2tAPqZkkz2E6A=\/0x0:1920x1080\/1366x768\/2020\/11\/23\/1606141209234.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Key information about the effective COVID-19 vaccines<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Three major candidates now reporting efficacy rates of more than 90%.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.covid-19vaccinetracker.org\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"COVID-19 Vaccine Visualization\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/assets.website-files.com\/5eadc653cd11465b8b744cf4\/5ee1a15ee06ee05e68f946b9_1PI_4724_Covid_19_Tracker_SocialBanner_V001.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">COVID-19 Vaccine Visualization<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">The Milken Institute partnered with First Person to create a COVID-19 interactive vaccine visualization. View the tool for at-a-glance updates on the race to develop a COVID-19 vaccine.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.raps.org\/news-and-articles\/news-articles\/2020\/3\/covid-19-vaccine-tracker\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"COVID-19 vaccine tracker\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">COVID-19 vaccine tracker<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\"><em>Updated 23 December<\/em> to include new information on vaccines from Pfizer\/BioNTech, Moderna, Sinovac and Gamaleya as well as vaccine candidates from CanSino, Altimmune, Bharat Biotech and Curevac<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"Manufacturing-of-mRNA-Vaccines\"><a href=\"#Manufacturing-of-mRNA-Vaccines\">Manufacturing of mRNA Vaccines<\/a><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>The following mRNA manufacturing informational video discusses various purification techniques and challenges at about the 19 minute mark. Conceivably, the mRNA purification process leaves some undesirable mRNA elements within the resulting product. While most of these impurities would be inert and have no deleterious effects, it does raise the question about the possibility of extremely rare mRNA impurities that could result in undesirable protein synthesis by cellular ribosomes upon vaccination that then causes adverse events. Autoimmune related adverse events have been hypothesized. It seems plausible that certain unusual proteins could be related to the development of an autoimmune response. As the video states, more research and development effort to improve the purification process and a better understanding of the impact of impurities within mRNA synthesis process are desirable.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio\"><div class=\"wp-block-embed__wrapper\">\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" title=\"mRNA Manufacturing\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/8j33dGRZ_S4?start=1117&#038;feature=oembed\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture; web-share\" referrerpolicy=\"strict-origin-when-cross-origin\" allowfullscreen><\/iframe>\n<\/div><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio\"><div class=\"wp-block-embed__wrapper\">\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" title=\"Chemically Modified mRNA Therapeutics, Design and Manufacturing\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/hmyh5J1r2-E?feature=oembed\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture; web-share\" referrerpolicy=\"strict-origin-when-cross-origin\" allowfullscreen><\/iframe>\n<\/div><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio\"><div class=\"wp-block-embed__wrapper\">\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" title=\"High Throughput Production of mRNA\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/cxu2cD5FBcg?feature=oembed\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture; web-share\" referrerpolicy=\"strict-origin-when-cross-origin\" allowfullscreen><\/iframe>\n<\/div><\/figure>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/news\/2020\/12\/development-unique-australian-covid-19-vaccine-halted\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Development of unique Australian COVID-19 vaccine halted\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/sites\/default\/files\/styles\/article_main_large\/public\/SARS-CoV-2_700p.jpg?itok=P492yCNz\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Development of unique Australian COVID-19 vaccine halted<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Unexpected immune response to HIV protein fragment in vaccine produced antibodies that could confuse screening tests for the AIDS virus<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41541-020-0159-8\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"The promise of mRNA vaccines: a biotech and industrial perspective\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/media.springernature.com\/m685\/springer-static\/image\/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41541-020-0159-8\/MediaObjects\/41541_2020_159_Fig1_HTML.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">The promise of mRNA vaccines: a biotech and industrial perspective<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">mRNA technologies have the potential to transform areas of medicine, including the prophylaxis of infectious diseases. The advantages for vaccines range from the acceleration of immunogen discovery to rapid response and multiple disease target manufacturing. A greater understanding of quality attrib\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/abs\/pii\/S0734975020300318?via%3Dihub\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"The challenge and prospect of mRNA therapeutics landscape\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/ars.els-cdn.com\/content\/image\/1-s2.0-S0734975020X00048-cov150h.gif\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">The challenge and prospect of mRNA therapeutics landscape<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Messenger RNA (mRNA)-based therapeutics hold the potential to cause a major revolution in the pharmaceutical industry because they can be used for pre\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/profile\/Yuanyu_Huang\/publication\/339409095_The_challenge_and_prospect_of_mRNA_therapeutics_landscape\/links\/5ebd05f0458515626ca8046d\/The-challenge-and-prospect-of-mRNA-therapeutics-landscape.pdf\">https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/profile\/Yuanyu_Huang\/publication\/339409095_The_challenge_and_prospect_of_mRNA_therapeutics_landscape\/links\/5ebd05f0458515626ca8046d\/The-challenge-and-prospect-of-mRNA-therapeutics-landscape.pdf<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.biospace.com\/article\/in-challenge-studies-with-monkeys-moderna-s-vaccine-protected-against-covid-19\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Moderna and NIAID Publish Positive COVID-19 Vaccine Data in Monkeys | BioSpace\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.biospace.com\/getasset\/c175b38d-e128-42e2-8134-ceed291489cd\/;w=625;h=350\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Moderna and NIAID Publish Positive COVID-19 Vaccine Data in Monkeys | BioSpace<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Moderna published data in The New England Journal of Medicine late yesterday in non-human primate studies of its MRNA-1273 vaccine against COVID-19.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2020\/07\/28\/health\/coronavirus-moderna-vaccine-monkeys.html\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Moderna Vaccine Test in Monkeys Shows Promise\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2020\/07\/28\/science\/28VIRUS-MODERNA\/28VIRUS-MODERNA-facebookJumbo.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Moderna Vaccine Test in Monkeys Shows Promise<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">This coronavirus vaccine developed by government researchers and Moderna enabled the animals to quickly clear the infection from their lungs.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p>&#8220;At day 7, in animals vaccinated with 10 \u03bcg of mRNA-1273, inflammation was mild, and no viral RNA was detected (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/doi\/full\/10.1056\/NEJMoa2024671?query=RP#\">Figure 4A<\/a>). However, at day 8, one animal in the 10-\u03bcg dose group had a single pneumocyte that was positive for viral antigen (Fig. S8). No substantial inflammation was observed in the lungs of nonhuman primates vaccinated with 100 \u03bcg of mRNA-1273, and neither viral RNA nor antigen was detected at day 7 or 8 after challenge (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/doi\/full\/10.1056\/NEJMoa2024671?query=RP#\">Figure 4A<\/a>). In addition to the lung sections from these earlier time points, lung sections from animals that were killed at day 14 or 15 after challenge had no evidence of substantial inflammation, and neither viral RNA nor viral antigen was detected in any of the groups, including the control group&#8221;<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/doi\/full\/10.1056\/NEJMoa2024671\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Evaluation of the mRNA-1273 Vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 in Nonhuman Primates | NEJM\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/na101\/home\/literatum\/publisher\/mms\/journals\/content\/nejm\/0\/nejm.ahead-of-print\/nejmoa2024671\/20200729\/images\/img_small\/nejmoa2024671_f1.jpeg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Evaluation of the mRNA-1273 Vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 in Nonhuman Primates | NEJM<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Original Article from The New England Journal of Medicine \u2014 Evaluation of the mRNA-1273 Vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 in Nonhuman Primates<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.thelancet.com\/journals\/lancet\/article\/PIIS0140-6736(20)31605-6\/fulltext\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Immunogenicity and safety of a recombinant adenovirus type-5-vectored COVID-19 vaccine in healthy adults aged 18 years or older: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/marlin-prod.literatumonline.com\/cms\/asset\/1696f40f-142c-47e1-a07f-615bfb2f2a0e\/gr2.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Immunogenicity and safety of a recombinant adenovirus type-5-vectored COVID-19 vaccine in healthy adults aged 18 years or older: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">The Ad5-vectored COVID-19 vaccine at 5\u2008\u00d7\u20081010 viral particles is safe, and induced<br \/>\nsignificant immune responses in the majority of recipients after a single immunisation.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.thelancet.com\/journals\/lancet\/article\/PIIS0140-6736(20)31604-4\/fulltext\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Safety and immunogenicity of the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine against SARS-CoV-2: a preliminary report of a phase 1\/2, single-blind, randomised controlled trial\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/marlin-prod.literatumonline.com\/cms\/asset\/27b27fee-d2be-488a-991e-4f7758bb65bb\/gr1a.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Safety and immunogenicity of the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine against SARS-CoV-2: a preliminary report of a phase 1\/2, single-blind, randomised controlled trial<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 showed an acceptable safety profile, and homologous boosting increased<br \/>\nantibody responses. These results, together with the induction of both humoral and<br \/>\ncellular immune responses, support large-scale evaluation of this candidate vaccine<br \/>\nin an ongoing phase 3 programme.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.yahoo.com\/news\/overwhelmingly-strong-results-could-end-110005044.html\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Overwhelmingly strong results could end COVID-19 vaccine trials early, Fauci says\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s.yimg.com\/uu\/api\/res\/1.2\/gWRURGnjmSCFiTgVTqjSRw--~B\/aD01NjA7dz04NDA7YXBwaWQ9eXRhY2h5b24-\/https:\/\/media.zenfs.com\/en\/la_times_articles_853\/de394064efd9f15ab3400e3ac3417ee1\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Overwhelmingly strong results could end COVID-19 vaccine trials early, Fauci says<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">A COVID-19 vaccine could be available earlier than expected if ongoing clinical trials produce overwhelmingly positive results, Dr. Anthony Fauci said.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.foxnews.com\/health\/pfizer-vaccine-coronavirus-texas-side-effects-volunteer\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Pfizer coronavirus vaccine volunteer describes side effects, urges others to \u2018get it\u2019 ASAP\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cf-images.us-east-1.prod.boltdns.net\/v1\/static\/694940094001\/8f3fecc3-5a31-4611-bab9-7c793ccae8ed\/04156e60-dd49-4a6a-bb45-9217b70151a9\/1280x720\/match\/image.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Pfizer coronavirus vaccine volunteer describes side effects, urges others to \u2018get it\u2019 ASAP<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">A Pfizer coronavirus vaccine volunteer in Austin, Texas told \u201cFox &amp; Friends\u201d about his experience in the clinical trial, urging others to \u201cget it as soon as you can.\u201d<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.yahoo.com\/news\/covid-19-vaccine-may-unpleasant-100438136.html\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Covid-19 vaccine may have unpleasant side effects. That will mean it\u2019s working.\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s.yimg.com\/ny\/api\/res\/1.2\/y1A4z78Bs7wIgPwz9ugCnQ--\/YXBwaWQ9aGlnaGxhbmRlcjt3PTIwMDA7aD0xMzM1\/https:\/\/s.yimg.com\/uu\/api\/res\/1.2\/MuD6Zeroocx_2XrNeJ6HAw--~B\/aD0xNjY5O3c9MjUwMDtzbT0xO2FwcGlkPXl0YWNoeW9u\/https:\/\/media.zenfs.com\/en-US\/nbc_news_122\/38a5a4c9f0bb10ea027db8585a1aeeb9\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Covid-19 vaccine may have unpleasant side effects. That will mean it\u2019s working.<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Early data suggest several of the coronavirus vaccines may cause people to feel crummy for a few days. And then they\u2019ll need a second dose.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2020\/health\/moderna-covid-19-vaccine.html\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"How Moderna\u2019s Vaccine Works\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2020\/12\/05\/us\/how-moderna-covid-19-vaccine-works-promo-1607191271089\/how-moderna-covid-19-vaccine-works-promo-1607191271089-facebookJumbo-v8.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">How Moderna\u2019s Vaccine Works<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Two shots can prime the immune system to fight the coronavirus.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41577-020-00480-0\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Viral targets for vaccines against COVID-19\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/media.springernature.com\/m685\/springer-static\/image\/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41577-020-00480-0\/MediaObjects\/41577_2020_480_Fig1_HTML.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Viral targets for vaccines against COVID-19<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">As the world races to develop vaccines against SARS-CoV-2, Dai and Gao highlight which viral targets are best to include in a vaccine and how this impacts the induced immune response and, ultimately, the safety and efficacy of a vaccine.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pscp.tv\/w\/1eaKbnodOPVKX\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"JAMA @JAMA_current\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/prod-fastly-us-east-1.video.pscp.tv\/Transcoding\/v1\/replay_thumbnail\/us-east-1\/periscope-replay-direct-prod-us-east-1-public\/eyJkIjowfQ\/siiY-fGcSHxTEoyvq5KYUVfyVdYCPnEIwNMUKfGBs9vja68T0IXrZxOLLy0bFQVSXzDmoNMMO4sF4I4jRRpGOA\/chunk_1606945467041311267_949_a.jpg?token=eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCIsInZlcnNpb24iOiIyIn0.eyJBbGxvd2VkUHJvdG9jb2xzIjpbInRodW1iIl0sIkJyb2FkY2FzdElkIjoiMWVhS2Jub2RPUFZLWCIsIkdyYW50VHlwZSI6InJlYWQiLCJHcmFudGVkQXQiOjE2MDcyMjUxMjcsIkdyYW50ZWRUbyI6IndlYi1yYXRlLWxpbWl0ZWQtNGE4ZDZkMTQzNmE3YmU0ZjBjMGE0ZGUyYTIyYTdkNzkiLCJTdHJlYW1OYW1lIjoic2lpWS1mR2NTSHhURW95dnE1S1lVVmZ5VmRZQ1BuRUl3Tk1VS2ZHQnM5dmphNjhUMElYclp4T0xMeTBiRlFWU1h6RG1vTk1NTzRzRjRJNGpSUnBHT0EiLCJleHAiOjE2MDczOTc5Mjd9.esJebAdjwz41lCaitZInvhssocf4OWqw8_E7WFo10Ds&amp;service=proxsee&amp;digest=hqeuyrGhpuHHqq6ZY_xnYAjFGsFz2Mwt3GTdAIebToU\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">JAMA @JAMA_current<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">With 2 #COVID19 vaccines reportedly under FDA review, @DrPaulOffit of @ChildrensPhila returns to JAMA\u2019s Q&amp;A series w\/ an update on what to expect re: vaccine rollout and ongoing safety surveillance.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/advisory-committees\/vaccines-and-related-biological-products-advisory-committee\/2020-meeting-materials-vaccines-and-related-biological-products-advisory-committee\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"2020 Meeting Materials, VRBPAC\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/themes\/custom\/preview\/img\/FDA-Social-Graphic.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">2020 Meeting Materials, VRBPAC<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">This is the main page for the CBER 2020 Meeting Materials, Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/advisory-committees\/advisory-committee-calendar\/vaccines-and-related-biological-products-advisory-committee-december-10-2020-meeting-announcement\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"VRBPAC December 10, 2020 Meeting Announcement\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/themes\/custom\/preview\/img\/FDA-Social-Graphic.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">VRBPAC December 10, 2020 Meeting Announcement<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">This is the CBER Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee December 10, 2020 Meeting Announcement.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2020.12.09.20245175v1\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"BNT162b2 induces SARS-CoV-2-neutralising antibodies and T cells in humans\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/sites\/default\/files\/medrxiv_internal_logo.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">BNT162b2 induces SARS-CoV-2-neutralising antibodies and T cells in humans<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">BNT162b2, a lipid nanoparticle (LNP) formulated nucleoside-modified messenger RNA (mRNA) encoding the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike protein (S) stabilized in the prefusion conformation, has demonstrated 95% efficacy to prevent coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/doi\/full\/10.1056\/NEJMoa2034577\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Safety and Efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 Vaccine | NEJM\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/na101\/home\/literatum\/publisher\/mms\/journals\/content\/nejm\/0\/nejm.ahead-of-print\/nejmoa2034577\/20201217\/images\/img_small\/nejmoa2034577_f1.jpeg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Safety and Efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 Vaccine | NEJM<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Original Article from The New England Journal of Medicine \u2014 Safety and Efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 Vaccine<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/advisory-committees\/advisory-committee-calendar\/vaccines-and-related-biological-products-advisory-committee-december-17-2020-meeting-announcement\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"VRBPAC December 17, 2020 Meeting Announcement\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/themes\/custom\/preview\/img\/FDA-Social-Graphic.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">VRBPAC December 17, 2020 Meeting Announcement<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">This is the CBER Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee December 17, 2020 Meeting Announcement.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/media\/144452\/download\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"download\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">download<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/investors.modernatx.com\/news-releases\/news-release-details\/moderna-announces-fda-authorization-moderna-covid-19-vaccine-us\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Moderna Announces FDA Authorization of Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine in U.S. | Moderna, Inc.\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Moderna Announces FDA Authorization of Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine in U.S. | Moderna, Inc.<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">U.S. FDA authorizes mRNA vaccine against COVID-19 for emergency use Total of 200 million doses ordered by the U.S government to date; U.S. government retains option to purchase up to an additional 300 million doses Approximately 20 million doses will be delivered by the end of December 2020 Moderna<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/doi\/full\/10.1056\/NEJMoa2035389\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Efficacy and Safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine | NEJM\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/na101\/home\/literatum\/publisher\/mms\/journals\/content\/nejm\/0\/nejm.ahead-of-print\/nejmoa2035389\/20201231-01\/images\/img_small\/nejmoa2035389_f1.jpeg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Efficacy and Safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine | NEJM<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Original Article from The New England Journal of Medicine \u2014 Efficacy and Safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p>The doctor being interviewed in the video who received the vaccine stated that he participated in a trial and after second dose he had 24 hours of adverse symptoms including chills and muscle aches  as a reaction to either the vehicle that delivers the mRNA or the protein produced by his body as a result of the vaccine. The reality is that his reaction is a normal part of an immune response. Immune responses may result in headaches, myalgia, and fever \/ chills. Symptoms are more often a result of the immune response, not the virus.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/finance.yahoo.com\/news\/coronavirus-update-first-pfizer-vaccine-shots-uk-to-start-human-challenge-trials-141118275.html\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Coronavirus update: First Pfizer vaccine shots, U.K. to start human challenge trials\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s.yimg.com\/ny\/api\/res\/1.2\/ZjQrDDki.YNPm3uhap3uHQ--\/YXBwaWQ9aGlnaGxhbmRlcjt3PTIwMDA7aD0xMzMz\/https:\/\/s.yimg.com\/os\/creatr-uploaded-images\/2020-12\/346a4c70-3da2-11eb-bbdf-0173d325baff\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Coronavirus update: First Pfizer vaccine shots, U.K. to start human challenge trials<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Operation Warp Speed is running at full speed Monday, after the first COVID-19 vaccine developed by Pfizer and BioNTech was shipped to sites across the U.S. &#8230;<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/vaccines\/covid-19\/info-by-product\/pfizer\/clinical-considerations.html\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Interim Clinical Considerations for Use of Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine | CDC\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/vaccines\/covid-19\/images\/append-conditions.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Interim Clinical Considerations for Use of Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine | CDC<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Find interim clinical considerations for the use of Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p>Regarding release of vaccines for use, there is a trade-off between agility and safety. It is interesting to revisit the idea of enrolling those at high-risk for a severe case during early trials. Would it have been better to run a parallel trial with specific groups having high comorbidities? Please contact us with your viewpoint and justification.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/fee.org\/articles\/we-had-the-vaccine-from-the-start-you-just-werent-allowed-to-take-it\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"We Had the Vaccine from the Start\u2014You Just Weren\u2019t Allowed to Take It | Philip Steele\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/fee.org\/media\/38859\/moderna_covid_vaccine.jpg?anchor=center&amp;mode=crop&amp;height=466&amp;widthratio=2.0171673819742489270386266094&amp;rnd=132531001920000000\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">We Had the Vaccine from the Start\u2014You Just Weren\u2019t Allowed to Take It | Philip Steele<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Moderna\u2019s vaccine, a triumph of medical science, was designed in a single weekend, just two days after Chinese researchers published the virus\u2019s genetic code on January 11, 2020<br \/>\nBut you, and all the people who died, were prohibited by the government from taking it.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.statnews.com\/2020\/12\/15\/fda-scientists-endorse-moderna-covid-19-vaccine-as-documents-provide-new-hints-on-efficacy\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"FDA scientists endorse Moderna Covid vaccine, amid new hints on efficacy\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.statnews.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/05\/Covid-19-vaccine-testing-1024x576.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">FDA scientists endorse Moderna Covid vaccine, amid new hints on efficacy<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">New documents show preliminary evidence that the vaccine has some efficacy after one dose, and that it prevents asymptomatic Covid-19 cases.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"Pfizer-First-Dose-Efficacy-Was-Incorrectly-Calculated\"><a href=\"#Pfizer-First-Dose-Efficacy-Was-Incorrectly-Calculated\">Pfizer First Dose Efficacy Was Incorrectly Calculated<\/a><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/doi\/full\/10.1056\/NEJMoa2034577\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Pfizer vaccine phase 3 trial data<\/a> indicated a first dose efficacy of 52.4%; however it appears this was incorrectly calculated. The calculation did not exclude the period where seroconversion was incomplete (the first 7 to 14 days). Efficacy calculations for the second dose excluded 7 days immediately after the second dose to allow for seroconversion delay. The first dose calculation used data from the time of the first dose to the time of the second dose and did not allow time for the vaccine to become effective. When using the data from Figure 3 of the Pfizer phase 3 trial and an appropriate exclusion period (the calculation is approximate due to missing data in the NEJM article), the efficacy can be calculated to over 90% (actually 93%). Sadly, the trial did not have a group that only received dose 1. From general immunology and <a href=\"#COVID-19-Immunity\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">many studies that show antibodies remaining for 3+ months<\/a>, it can be deduced that dose 1 efficacy is likely to be greater than 90% and nearly equivalent to the dose 2 efficacy of 95% and remain durable for at least 3 months. Moderna&#8217;s first dose efficacy calculations were likely to be more correct at <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencenews.org\/article\/covid-19-coronavirus-moderna-vaccine-fda-approval\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">&#8220;an efficacy of 80.2 percent after the first dose&#8221;<\/a>; however these may also not have allowed enough time for seroconversion, skewing the result downward from reality.<br><br>It is likely a large mistake if dose 2 is given at 3 weeks (4 weeks for Moderna) to the detriment of providing dose 1 much more widely to those at risk. The trial, being done at &#8220;warp speed&#8221; used a 3 week boost schedule to accelerate the trial. Many vaccine boosts (post trial) are typically done 6 months after prime with good results and there is currently little or no immunological data to suspect that a 3 or 6 month timing would not be appropriate. In fact, spacing out the prime and boost doses has the added effect of increasing the period of likely &#8220;sterilizing immunity&#8221;. It is also likely to increase the activation of additional naive B cells as antibody titers wane and do not neutralize the vaccine epitopes and preventing them from binding with B\/T cells in the SLO germinal centers as part of a further binding affinity enhancement process which improves specificity and strength of future immune response. Providing a boost dose too early while unbound antibodies are highly prevalent can result in the antibodies binding to the boost vaccine epitopes and neutralizing them and preventing them from stimulating further immune response.<br><br>The 90% dose 1 efficacy recalculation was based on Pfizer trial data Figure 3 recalculations that added &#8220;Dose 2 to 7 days after dose 2&#8221; data to the &#8220;&gt;=7 days after dose 2&#8221; data and also adding 3 more cases in the vaccinated group to approximate starting at &#8220;day 11 past dose 1&#8221;. This calculation is much more likely to reflect reality than the badly calculated 52.4% &#8220;After dose 1 to before dose 2&#8221; period which allowed zero time for the vaccine to take effect and complete seroconversion.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cidrap.umn.edu\/news-perspective\/2020\/12\/fda-documents-show-pfizer-covid-vaccine-protects-after-1-dose\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"FDA documents show Pfizer COVID vaccine protects after 1 dose\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.cidrap.umn.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/public\/styles\/thumbnail\/public\/images\/news\/corona_vax_vials.jpg?itok=TohAbP3Q\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">FDA documents show Pfizer COVID vaccine protects after 1 dose<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Also, 63% of Americans are now willing to be immunized, up from 50% in September.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/csels\/dsepd\/ss1978\/lesson3\/section6.html\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"section6.html\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/csels\/dsepd\/ss1978\/images\/dividedBy.png\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">section6.html<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">A measure of public health impact is used to place the association between an exposure and an outcome into a meaningful public health context. Whereas a measure of association quantifies the relationship between exposure and disease, and thus begins to provide insight into causal relationships, meas\u2026<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"Vaccine-Distribution-And-Administration\"><a href=\"#Vaccine-Distribution-And-Administration\">Vaccine Distribution And Administration<\/a><\/h4>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/losangeles.cbslocal.com\/2020\/12\/14\/first-batch-of-pfizers-coronavirus-vaccine-arrives-at-lax\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"First Batch Of Pfizer\u2019s Coronavirus Vaccine Arrives At LAX\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/losangeles.cbslocal.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/14984641\/2020\/12\/LAX-vaccines.jpeg?w=1296\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">First Batch Of Pfizer\u2019s Coronavirus Vaccine Arrives At LAX<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Pfizer\u2019s coronavirus vaccine has officially arrived in Los Angeles.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.msn.com\/en-us\/health\/medical\/la-healthcare-workers-likely-to-begin-getting-covid-19-vaccinations-this-week\/ar-BB1bUYdf?ocid=hplocalnews\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"LA Healthcare Workers Begin Receiving COVID-19 Vaccinations\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/img-s-msn-com.akamaized.net\/tenant\/amp\/entityid\/BB1bURMU.img?h=315&amp;w=600&amp;m=6&amp;q=60&amp;o=t&amp;l=f&amp;f=jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">LA Healthcare Workers Begin Receiving COVID-19 Vaccinations<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">The first batch of the Pfizer vaccine arrived at LAX Sunday evening.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/finance.yahoo.com\/news\/cdc-says-over-556-208-073914395.html\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"CDC Says Over 556,208 Pfizer\/BioNTech COVID-19 Shots Administered In Week 1 Of Inoculation Drive\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s.yimg.com\/uu\/api\/res\/1.2\/ci4uhq.DFNxTV.rMP9hS9A--~B\/aD00MDA7dz02MDA7YXBwaWQ9eXRhY2h5b24-\/https:\/\/media.zenfs.com\/en\/Benzinga\/97e3637e36f652e9a1badcbcfa936756\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">CDC Says Over 556,208 Pfizer\/BioNTech COVID-19 Shots Administered In Week 1 Of Inoculation Drive<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">A week into the COVID-19 mass vaccination efforts, the U.S. Centers For Disease Control and Prevention reports that &#8212; of the 2,838,225 doses distributed&#8230;<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.usatoday.com\/story\/news\/health\/2020\/12\/19\/moderna-covid-vaccine-distribution-begins-start-arriving-monday\/3974291001\/\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"Moderna coronavirus vaccines are on the way, will start arriving in states Monday\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.gannett-cdn.com\/-mm-\/b2b05a4ab25f4fca0316459e1c7404c537a89702\/c=0-0-1365-768\/local\/-\/media\/2020\/12\/16\/USATODAY\/usatsports\/imageForEntry54-TBU.jpg?width=1365&amp;height=768&amp;fit=crop&amp;format=pjpg&amp;auto=webp\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">Moderna coronavirus vaccines are on the way, will start arriving in states Monday<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Moderna coronavirus vaccine deliveries should begin to arrive across the nation on Monday as shipments of Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine continue.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/article\/us-health-coronavirus-vaccine-distributi\/analysis-first-u-s-delivery-of-covid-19-vaccine-will-leave-out-many-high-risk-workers-idUSKBN28E1JP\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">&#8220;The subsequent two weekly vaccine distributions could cover 7 to 10 million people a week, provided a second vaccine &#8211; from Moderna Inc &#8211; is authorized early in the second half of December, and Pfizer meets its distribution estimates, according to data provided by Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the companies.&#8221;<\/a><br><a href=\"https:\/\/finance.yahoo.com\/news\/coronavirus-update-moderna-raises-vaccine-production-target-new-virus-strains-cause-concern-171219065.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">&#8220;In a statement Monday, Moderna said it plans to have 200 million doses for the U.S. by the second quarter, meeting its current commitment for the federal government&#8221;<\/a> That calculates to about 7.7 million doses per week allocated to the US by Moderna alone.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>For months it had been predicted that the vaccine would likely be available in December 2020. Numerous plans by vaccine manufacturers, shipping companies, and the US federal government were put in place to ensure earliest possible distribution &#8211; and they executed flawlessly. Within 72 hours of approval, the vaccines were nearly 100% distributed to points of care. Unfortunately, during week 1, most of the vaccine sat unused at point-of-care locations; less than 20% of available doses were administered and over 2 million US citizens who could have been protected, remained unprotected. Good execution is needed here. Given current knowledge about those at risk, there is already more than enough vaccine available on 12\/21 to prevent the majority of deaths and serious hospitalizations. If deaths do not drop to less than 1\/10th current rates before the end of January, it will be due to poor vaccination execution at the localities as the decisions about who to vaccinate and when is made at local levels. Vaccine sitting at points-of-care and not utilized is another indicator.<br><br><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/coronavirus\/2019-ncov\/vaccines\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">USA Data from CDC:<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<table id=\"tablepress-2\" class=\"tablepress tablepress-id-2\">\n<thead>\n<tr class=\"row-1\">\n\t<th class=\"column-1\">Status Date<\/th><th class=\"column-2\">Total Doses<br \/>\nDistributed<\/th><th class=\"column-3\">Total Doses<br \/>\nAdministered<\/th><th class=\"column-4\">Doses Unused<\/th><th class=\"column-5\">Percent Of<br \/>\nAvailable Doses<br \/>\nActually Used<\/th><th class=\"column-6\">People That<br \/>\nGot Dose 2<br \/>\nThat Could<br \/>\nHave Protected<br \/>\nOthers With<br \/>\nDose 1<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody class=\"row-striping row-hover\">\n<tr class=\"row-2\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Dec 20, 2020<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">2838225<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">556208<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">2,282,017<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">19.6<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-3\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Week of Dec 21, 2020<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">10738225<\/td><td class=\"column-3\"><\/td><td class=\"column-4\"><\/td><td class=\"column-5\"><\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-4\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Dec 21 9AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">4624325<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">614117<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">4,010,208<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">13.3<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-5\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Dec 23 9AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">9465725<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">1008025<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">8,457,700<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">10.6<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-6\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Dec 26 9AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">9547925<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">1944585<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">7,603,340<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">20.4<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-7\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Dec 28 9AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">11445175<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">2127143<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">9,318,032<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">18.6<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-8\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Dec 30 9AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">12409050<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">2794588<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">9,614,462<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">22.5<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-9\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Jan 2 9AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">13071925<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">4225756<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">8,846,169<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">32.3<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-10\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Jan 4 9AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">15418500<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">4563260<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">10,855,240<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">29.6<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-11\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Jan 5 9AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">17020575<br \/>\n<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">4836469<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">12,184,106<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">28.4<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-12\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Jan 6 9AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">17288950<br \/>\n<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">5306797<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">11,982,153<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">30.7<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-13\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Jan 8 9AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">22137350<br \/>\n<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">6688231<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">15,449,119<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">30.2<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-14\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Jan 11 9AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">25480725<br \/>\n<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">8987322<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">16,493,403<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">35.3<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-15\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Jan 13 9AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">29380125<br \/>\n<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">10278462<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">19,101,663<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">35<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-16\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Jan 15 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">31161075<br \/>\n<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">12279180<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">18,881,895<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">39.4<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-17\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Jan 20 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">35990150<br \/>\n<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">16525281<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">19,464,869<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">45.9<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-18\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Jan 22 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">39892400<br \/>\n<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">19107959<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">20,784,441<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">47.9<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-19\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Jan 27 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">47230950<br \/>\n<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">24652634<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">22,578,316<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">52.2<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-20\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Jan 29 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">49216500<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">27884661<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">21,331,839<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">56.7<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-21\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Feb 1 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">49936450<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">32222402<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">17,714,048<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">64.5<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-22\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Feb 3 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">55943800<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">33878254<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">22,065,546<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">60.6<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-23\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Feb 5 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">58380300<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">36819212<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">21,561,088<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">63.1<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-24\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Feb 8 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">59307800<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">42417617<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">16,890,183<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">71.5<\/td><td class=\"column-6\">9,518,015<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-25\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Feb 10 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">65972575<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">44769970<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">21,202,605<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">67.9<\/td><td class=\"column-6\">10,469,514<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-26\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Feb 13 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">69883625<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">50641884<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">19,241,741<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">72.5<\/td><td class=\"column-6\">13,082,172<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-27\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Feb 17 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">72423125<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">56281827<br \/>\n<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">16,141,298<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">77.7<\/td><td class=\"column-6\">15,471,536<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-28\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Feb 23 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">82114370<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">65032083<br \/>\n<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">17,082,287<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">79.2<\/td><td class=\"column-6\">19,882,544<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-29\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Mar 2 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">102353940<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">78631601<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">23,722,339<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">76.8<\/td><td class=\"column-6\">26,162,122<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-30\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Mar 9 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">123232775<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">93692598<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">29,540,177<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">76<\/td><td class=\"column-6\">32,102,061<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-31\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Mar 16 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">142918525<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">110737856<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">32,180,669<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">77.5<\/td><td class=\"column-6\">39,042,345<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-32\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Mar 23 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">164300795<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">128217029<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">36,083,766<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">78<\/td><td class=\"column-6\">45,533,962<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-33\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Mar 31 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">195581725<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">150273292<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">45,308,433<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">76.8<\/td><td class=\"column-6\">54,607,041<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-34\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Apr 7 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">225294435<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">171476655<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">53,817,780<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">76.1<\/td><td class=\"column-6\">64,422,618<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-35\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Apr 15 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">255400665<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">198317040<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">57,083,625<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">77.6<\/td><td class=\"column-6\">78,498,290<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-36\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Apr 21 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">277938875<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">215951909<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">61,986,966<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">77.7<\/td><td class=\"column-6\">87,592,646<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-37\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Apr 28 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">301857885<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">234639414<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">67,218,471<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">77.7<\/td><td class=\"column-6\">98,044,421<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-38\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">May 13 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">339165445<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">266596486<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">72,568,959<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">78.6<\/td><td class=\"column-6\">118,987,308<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-39\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">May 24 6AM ET<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">357250475<\/td><td class=\"column-3\">286890900<\/td><td class=\"column-4\">70,359,575<\/td><td class=\"column-5\">80.3<\/td><td class=\"column-6\">130,615,797<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-40\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\"><\/td><td class=\"column-2\"><\/td><td class=\"column-3\"><\/td><td class=\"column-4\"><\/td><td class=\"column-5\"><\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-41\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\"><\/td><td class=\"column-2\"><\/td><td class=\"column-3\"><\/td><td class=\"column-4\"><\/td><td class=\"column-5\"><\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<!-- #tablepress-2 from cache -->\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">On the order of <strong>90,000 US deaths<\/strong> in 2021 and uncountable hospitalizations<strong> could be prevented by using <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3760833\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3760833\" target=\"_blank\">deferred dose 2 timing<\/a> similar to what the UK is doing.<\/strong><br><br><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/covid-vaccine\/faq?fbclid=IwAR22WBr448pDQKaev3y-q77-0ANOQdKX69D51wCVYsr5UHZ9IV1UUWmwCYg\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/covid-vaccine\/faq?fbclid=IwAR22WBr448pDQKaev3y-q77-0ANOQdKX69D51wCVYsr5UHZ9IV1UUWmwCYg\" target=\"_blank\">&#8220;there is no biological reason why receiving the second dose late would diminish the effectiveness of the vaccine, provided it\u2019s received before too long an interval.&#8221;<\/a> &#8211; Paul Sax, M.D., Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical School<\/h3>\n\n\n<div class=\"vlp-link-container vlp-layout-basic wp-block-visual-link-preview-link\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/coronavirus\/2019-ncov\/vaccines\/index.html\" class=\"vlp-link\" title=\"COVID-19 and Your Health\" rel=\"nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"><\/a><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-side\"><div class=\"vlp-block-2 vlp-link-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/coronavirus\/2019-ncov\/images\/your-health-facebook_1200x630.jpg\" style=\"max-width: 150px; max-height: 150px\" \/><\/div><\/div><div class=\"vlp-layout-zone-main\"><div class=\"vlp-block-0 vlp-link-title\">COVID-19 and Your Health<\/div><div class=\"vlp-block-1 vlp-link-summary\">Get information about symptoms, testing, what to do if sick, daily activities, and more.<\/div><\/div><\/div>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>&#8216;Immunology is obviously not perspicuous enough to eliminate these understandings, unless one maintains that arrogance blinds &#8220;scientific experts&#8221; from seeing obvious truths, which even a \u201cplowboy\u201d ought to be able to grasp.&#8217; &#8211; adapted from Martin Luther, 1483-1546 A&nbsp;vaccine&nbsp;is a biological preparation that provides active&nbsp;acquired immunity&nbsp;to a particular&nbsp;infectious disease.The various types of vaccines include: Inactivated [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_lmt_disableupdate":"no","_lmt_disable":"","site-sidebar-layout":"default","site-content-layout":"default","ast-site-content-layout":"default","site-content-style":"default","site-sidebar-style":"default","ast-global-header-display":"","ast-banner-title-visibility":"","ast-main-header-display":"","ast-hfb-above-header-display":"","ast-hfb-below-header-display":"","ast-hfb-mobile-header-display":"","site-post-title":"","ast-breadcrumbs-content":"","ast-featured-img":"","footer-sml-layout":"","ast-disable-related-posts":"","theme-transparent-header-meta":"default","adv-header-id-meta":"","stick-header-meta":"","header-above-stick-meta":"","header-main-stick-meta":"","header-below-stick-meta":"","astra-migrate-meta-layouts":"default","ast-page-background-enabled":"default","ast-page-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"ast-content-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"footnotes":""},"categories":[7],"tags":[],"folder":[],"class_list":["post-1127","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry","category-recenttopicslist"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.4 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Immunology: Vaccines, Viral Loads, Symptom Severity, And Immunity - Really Correct<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/reallycorrect.com\/ReallyCorrectWp1\/immunology-vaccines-viral-loads-symptom-severity-and-immunity\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Immunology: 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